The garden strawberry (or simply strawberry; ''Fragaria × ananassa'')
is a widely grown
hybrid species
Hybrid speciation is a form of speciation where hybridization between two different species leads to a new species, reproductively isolated from the parent species. Previously, reproductive isolation between two species and their parents was tho ...
of the genus ''
Fragaria
''Fragaria'' () is a genus of flowering plants in the rose family, Rosaceae, commonly known as strawberries for their edible fruits. There are more than 20 described species and many hybrids and cultivars. The most common strawberries grown com ...
'', collectively known as the strawberries, which are cultivated worldwide for their fruit. The fruit is widely appreciated for its characteristic aroma, bright red color, juicy texture, and sweetness. It is consumed in large quantities, either fresh or in such prepared foods as
jam
Jam is a type of fruit preserve.
Jam or Jammed may also refer to:
Other common meanings
* A firearm malfunction
* Block signals
** Radio jamming
** Radar jamming and deception
** Mobile phone jammer
** Echolocation jamming
Arts and entertai ...
, juice,
pie
A pie is a baked dish which is usually made of a pastry dough casing that contains a filling of various sweet or savoury ingredients. Sweet pies may be filled with fruit (as in an apple pie), nuts ( pecan pie), brown sugar ( sugar pie), swe ...
s,
ice cream
Ice cream is a sweetened frozen food typically eaten as a snack or dessert. It may be made from milk or cream and is flavoured with a sweetener, either sugar or an alternative, and a spice, such as cocoa or vanilla, or with fruit such as str ...
,
milkshake
A milkshake (sometimes simply called a shake) is a sweet beverage made by blending milk, ice cream, and flavorings or sweeteners such as butterscotch, caramel sauce, chocolate syrup, fruit syrup, or whole fruit into a thick, sweet, cold mixture ...
s, and chocolates. Artificial strawberry flavorings and aromas are also widely used in products such as candy, soap,
lip gloss
Lip gloss is a cosmetic used primarily to give lips a glossy luster, and sometimes to add a subtle color. It is distributed as a fluid or a soft solid (not to be confused with lip balm, which generally has medical or soothing purposes, or lipst ...
, perfume, and many others.
The garden strawberry was first bred in
Brittany
Brittany (; french: link=no, Bretagne ; br, Breizh, or ; Gallo language, Gallo: ''Bertaèyn'' ) is a peninsula, Historical region, historical country and cultural area in the west of modern France, covering the western part of what was known ...
, France, in the 1750s via a cross of ''
Fragaria virginiana
''Fragaria virginiana'', known as Virginia strawberry, wild strawberry, common strawberry, or mountain strawberry, is a North American strawberry that grows across much of the United States and southern Canada. It is one of the two species of wi ...
'' from eastern North America and ''
Fragaria chiloensis
''Fragaria chiloensis'', the beach strawberry, Chilean strawberry, or coastal strawberry, is one of two species of wild strawberry that were hybridized to create the modern garden strawberry (''F. × ananassa''). It is native to the Pacific Oce ...
'', which was brought from Chile by
Amédée-François Frézier
Amédée-François Frézier (1682 – October 26, 1773) was a French military engineer, mathematician, spy, and explorer who is best remembered for bringing back five specimens of '' Fragaria chiloensis'', the beach strawberry, from an assignment ...
in 1714.
Cultivar
A cultivar is a type of cultivated plant that people have selected for desired traits and when propagated retain those traits. Methods used to propagate cultivars include: division, root and stem cuttings, offsets, grafting, tissue culture, ...
s of ''Fragaria'' × ''ananassa'' have replaced, in commercial production, the woodland strawberry (''
Fragaria vesca
''Fragaria vesca'', commonly called the wild strawberry, woodland strawberry, Alpine strawberry, Carpathian strawberry or European strawberry, is a perennial herbaceous plant in the rose family that grows naturally throughout much of the Northe ...
''), which was the first strawberry species cultivated in the early 17th century.
The strawberry is not, from a botanical point of view, a
berry
A berry is a small, pulpy, and often edible fruit. Typically, berries are juicy, rounded, brightly colored, sweet, sour or tart, and do not have a stone or pit, although many pips or seeds may be present. Common examples are strawberries, raspb ...
. Technically, it is an
aggregate accessory fruit, meaning that the fleshy part is derived not from the plant's ovaries but from the
receptacle that holds the
ovaries
The ovary is an organ in the female reproductive system that produces an ovum. When released, this travels down the fallopian tube into the uterus, where it may become fertilized by a sperm. There is an ovary () found on each side of the body. T ...
.
[Esau, K. (1977). ''Anatomy of seed plants''. John Wiley and Sons, New York. .] Each apparent "seed" (
achene
An achene (; ), also sometimes called akene and occasionally achenium or achenocarp, is a type of simple dry fruit produced by many species of flowering plants. Achenes are monocarpellate (formed from one carpel) and indehiscent (they do not ope ...
) on the outside of the fruit is actually one of the ovaries of the flower, with a seed inside it.
In 2019, world production of strawberries was nine million tons, led by China with 40% of the total.
History
![Strawberry gariguette DSC03063](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/Strawberry_gariguette_DSC03063.JPG)
The first garden strawberry was grown in
Brittany
Brittany (; french: link=no, Bretagne ; br, Breizh, or ; Gallo language, Gallo: ''Bertaèyn'' ) is a peninsula, Historical region, historical country and cultural area in the west of modern France, covering the western part of what was known ...
, France, during the late 18th century.
Prior to this,
wild strawberries and cultivated selections from wild strawberry species were the common source of the fruit.
The strawberry fruit was mentioned in ancient Roman literature in reference to its medicinal use. The French began taking the strawberry from the forest to their gardens for harvest in the 14th century.
Charles V Charles V may refer to:
* Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (1500–1558)
* Charles V of Naples (1661–1700), better known as Charles II of Spain
* Charles V of France (1338–1380), called the Wise
* Charles V, Duke of Lorraine (1643–1690)
* Infan ...
, France's king from 1364 to 1380, had 1,200 strawberry plants in his royal garden. In the early 15th century western European monks were using the wild strawberry in their illuminated manuscripts. The strawberry is found in Italian, Flemish, and German art, and in English miniatures. The entire strawberry plant was used to treat depressive illnesses.
By the 16th century, references of cultivation of the strawberry became more common. People began using it for its supposed medicinal properties and botanists began naming the different species. In England the demand for regular strawberry farming had increased by the mid-16th century.
The combination of strawberries and cream was created by
Thomas Wolsey
Thomas Wolsey ( – 29 November 1530) was an English statesman and Catholic bishop. When Henry VIII became King of England in 1509, Wolsey became the king's almoner. Wolsey's affairs prospered and by 1514 he had become the controlling figur ...
in the court of King
Henry VIII
Henry VIII (28 June 149128 January 1547) was King of England from 22 April 1509 until his death in 1547. Henry is best known for his six marriages, and for his efforts to have his first marriage (to Catherine of Aragon) annulled. His disa ...
.
Instructions for growing and harvesting strawberries showed up in writing in 1578. By the end of the 16th century three European species had been cited: ''F. vesca'', ''F. moschata'', and ''F. viridis''. The garden strawberry was transplanted from the forests and then the plants would be propagated
asexually by cutting off the runners.
Two subspecies of ''F. vesca'' were identified: ''F. sylvestris alba'' and ''F. sylvestris semperflorens''. The introduction of ''F. virginiana'' from eastern North America to Europe in the 17th century is an important part of history because it is one of the two species that gave rise to the modern strawberry. The new species gradually spread through the continent and did not become completely appreciated until the end of the 18th century. A French excursion journeyed to Chile in 1712, which led to the introduction of a strawberry plant with female flowers that resulted in the common strawberry.
The Mapuche and Huilliche Indians of Chile cultivated the female strawberry species until 1551, when the Spanish came to conquer the land. In 1765, a European explorer recorded the cultivation of ''F. chiloensis'', the Chilean strawberry. At first introduction to Europe, the plants grew vigorously, but produced no fruit. French gardeners in Brest and
Cherbourg
Cherbourg (; , , ), nrf, Chèrbourg, ) is a former commune and subprefecture located at the northern end of the Cotentin peninsula in the northwestern French department of Manche. It was merged into the commune of Cherbourg-Octeville on 28 Feb ...
around the mid-18th century first noticed that when ''F. moschata'' and ''F. virginiana'' were planted in between rows of ''F. chiloensis'', the Chilean strawberry would bear abundant and unusually large fruits. Soon after,
Antoine Nicolas Duchesne
Antoine Nicolas Duchesne (born 7 October 1747 Versailles; died 18 February 1827 Paris) was a French botanist known for his keen observation of variation within species, and for demonstrating that species are not immutable, because mutations can occ ...
began to study the
breeding of strawberries
The breeding of strawberries started with the selection and cultivation of European strawberry species in western Europe in the 15th century while a similar discovery and cultivation occurred in Chile. The most commonly consumed strawberry species ...
and made several discoveries crucial to the science of plant breeding, such as the sexual reproduction of the strawberry which he published in 1766. Duchesne discovered that the female ''F. chiloensis'' plants could only be pollinated by male ''F. moschata'' or ''F. virginiana'' plants.
This is when the Europeans became aware that plants had the ability to produce male-only or female-only flowers.
Duchesne determined ''F. ananassa'' to be a hybrid of ''F. chiloensis'' and ''F. virginiana''. ''F. ananassa'', which produces large fruits, is so named because it resembles the pineapple in smell, taste and berry shape. In England, many varieties of ''F. ananassa'' were produced, and they form the basis of modern varieties of strawberries currently cultivated and consumed. Further breeding were also conducted in Europe and America to improve the hardiness, disease resistance, size, and taste.
Description and growth
![Garden strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa) close-up](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Garden_strawberry_%28Fragaria_%C3%97_ananassa%29_close-up.jpg)
Strawberries are often grouped according to their flowering habit.
Traditionally, this has consisted of a division between "June-bearing" strawberries, which bear their fruit in the early summer and "ever-bearing" strawberries, which often bear several crops of fruit throughout the season.
One plant throughout a season may produce 50 to 60 times or roughly once every three days.
Research published in 2001 showed that strawberries actually occur in three basic flowering habits: short-day, long-day, and day-neutral. These refer to the day-length sensitivity of the plant and the type of
photoperiod
Photoperiodism is the physiological reaction of organisms to the length of night or a dark period. It occurs in plants and animals. Plant photoperiodism can also be defined as the developmental responses of plants to the relative lengths of light a ...
that induces flower formation. Day-neutral cultivars produce flowers regardless of the photoperiod.
Cultivation
Strawberry cultivars vary widely in size, color, flavor, shape, degree of fertility, season of ripening, liability to disease and constitution of plant.
On average, a strawberry has about 200 seeds on its external membrane. Some vary in foliage, and some vary materially in the relative development of their sexual organs. In most cases, the flowers appear
hermaphroditic
In reproductive biology, a hermaphrodite () is an organism that has both kinds of reproductive organs and can produce both gametes associated with male and female sexes.
Many taxonomic groups of animals (mostly invertebrates) do not have separ ...
in structure, but function as either male or female.
For purposes of commercial production, plants are propagated from
runners and, in general, distributed as either bare root plants or plugs. Cultivation follows one of two general models—annual
plasticulture
The term plasticulture refers to the practice of using plastic materials in agricultural applications. The plastic materials themselves are often and broadly referred to as "ag plastics". Plasticulture ag plastics include soil fumigation film, i ...
,
or a perennial system of matted rows or mounds.
Greenhouses produce a small amount of strawberries during the off season.
The bulk of modern commercial production uses the plasticulture system. In this method, raised beds are formed each year,
fumigated, and covered with plastic to prevent weed growth and erosion. Plants, usually obtained from northern nurseries, are planted through holes punched in this covering, and irrigation tubing is run underneath. Runners are removed from the plants as they appear, to encourage the plants to put most of their energy into fruit development. After harvesting, the plastic is removed and the plants are plowed into the ground.
Strawberry plants produce more and better fruit when they are young. After a year or two, they decline. Replacing them annually improves yields and enables denser planting.
However, this necessitates a longer growing season, for the plants to establish themselves. It also costs more to annually purchase plants, form new mounds, and cover them with (new) plastic.
The other major method retains plants for multiple years. This is most common in colder climates. The plants are grown in rows or on mounds.
This method requires lower investment and lower maintenance, overall.
Yields are typically lower than in plasticulture.
Another method uses a
compost sock. Plants grown in compost socks have been shown to produce significantly more
flavonoid
Flavonoids (or bioflavonoids; from the Latin word ''flavus'', meaning yellow, their color in nature) are a class of polyphenolic secondary metabolites found in plants, and thus commonly consumed in the diets of humans.
Chemically, flavonoids ...
s,
anthocyanin
Anthocyanins (), also called anthocyans, are water-soluble vacuolar pigments that, depending on their pH, may appear red, purple, blue, or black. In 1835, the German pharmacist Ludwig Clamor Marquart gave the name Anthokyan to a chemical compo ...
s,
fructose
Fructose, or fruit sugar, is a Ketose, ketonic monosaccharide, simple sugar found in many plants, where it is often bonded to glucose to form the disaccharide sucrose. It is one of the three dietary monosaccharides, along with glucose and galacto ...
,
glucose
Glucose is a simple sugar with the molecular formula . Glucose is overall the most abundant monosaccharide, a subcategory of carbohydrates. Glucose is mainly made by plants and most algae during photosynthesis from water and carbon dioxide, using ...
,
sucrose
Sucrose, a disaccharide, is a sugar composed of glucose and fructose subunits. It is produced naturally in plants and is the main constituent of white sugar. It has the molecular formula .
For human consumption, sucrose is extracted and refined ...
,
malic acid
Malic acid is an organic compound with the molecular formula . It is a dicarboxylic acid that is made by all living organisms, contributes to the sour taste of fruits, and is used as a food additive. Malic acid has two stereoisomeric forms ...
, and
citric acid
Citric acid is an organic compound with the chemical formula HOC(CO2H)(CH2CO2H)2. It is a colorless weak organic acid. It occurs naturally in citrus fruits. In biochemistry, it is an intermediate in the citric acid cycle, which occurs in t ...
than fruit produced in the black
plastic mulch
Plastic mulch is a product used in plasticulture in a similar fashion to mulch, to suppress weeds and conserve water in crop production and landscaping. Certain plastic mulches also act as a barrier to keep methyl bromide, both a powerful fumigant ...
or matted row systems. Similar results in an earlier study conducted by
USDA
The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) is the federal executive department responsible for developing and executing federal laws related to farming, forestry, rural economic development, and food. It aims to meet the needs of com ...
confirms how compost plays a role in the bioactive qualities of two strawberry cultivars.
Strawberries may also be propagated by seed, though this is primarily a hobby activity, and is not widely practiced commercially. A few seed-propagated cultivars have been developed for home use, and research into growing from seed commercially is ongoing. Seeds (
achene
An achene (; ), also sometimes called akene and occasionally achenium or achenocarp, is a type of simple dry fruit produced by many species of flowering plants. Achenes are monocarpellate (formed from one carpel) and indehiscent (they do not ope ...
s) are acquired either via commercial seed suppliers, or by collecting and saving them from the fruit.
Strawberries can also be grown indoors in strawberry pots. Strawberries won't grow indoors in winter unless aided by a combination of blue and red
LED lights
An LED lamp or LED light bulb is an electric light that produces light using light-emitting diodes (LEDs). LED lamps are significantly more energy-efficient than equivalent incandescent lamps
and can be significantly more efficient than mos ...
. In southern lands, such as
Florida
Florida is a state located in the Southeastern region of the United States. Florida is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the northwest by Alabama, to the north by Georgia, to the east by the Bahamas and Atlantic Ocean, and to ...
, winter is the natural growing season and harvesting begins in mid-November.
The Kashubian strawberry (''Truskawka kaszubska'' or ''Kaszëbskô malëna'') is the first Polish fruit to be given commercial protection under EU law. It is produced in
Kartuzy
Kartuzy () ( Kashubian ''Kartuzë'', ''Kartëzë'', or ''Kartuzé''; formerly german: Karthaus) is a town in northern Poland, located in the historic Eastern Pomerania (Pomerelia) region. It is the capital of Kartuzy County in Pomeranian Voivodesh ...
,
Kościerzyna
Kościerzyna ( Kashubian and Pomeranian: ''Kòscérzëna''; formerly german: Berent, ) is a town in Kashubia in Gdańsk Pomerania region, northern Poland, with some 24,000 inhabitants. It has been the capital of Kościerzyna County in Pomerania ...
and
Bytów
Bytów (; csb, Bëtowò; formerly german: Bütow ) is a town in the Gdańsk Pomerania region of northern Poland with 16,730 inhabitants as of December 2021. It is the capital of Bytów County in the Pomeranian Voivodeship.
The origins of Bytó ...
counties and in the municipalities of
Przywidz,
Wejherowo
Wejherowo ( csb, Wejrowò; german: Neustadt in Westpreußen, formerly Weyhersfrey) is a city in Gdańsk Pomerania, northern Poland, with 48,735 inhabitants (2021). It has been the capital of Wejherowo County in Pomeranian Voivodeship since 199 ...
,
Luzino
Luzino ( csb, Lëzëno; formerly german: Lusin, (1942-3): ''Freienau'', (1943-5): ''Lintzau'') is a village in Wejherowo County, Pomeranian Voivodeship, in northern Poland. It is the seat of the gmina (administrative district) called Gmina ...
,
Szemud
Szemud ( csb, Szëmôłd; formerly german: Schönwalde) is a village in Wejherowo County, Pomeranian Voivodeship, in northern Poland. It is the seat of the gmina (administrative district) called Gmina Szemud. It lies approximately south of Wejh ...
,
Linia,
Łęczyce and
Cewice
Cewice ( csb, Céwice; formerly german: Zewitz) is a village in Lębork County, Pomeranian Voivodeship, in northern Poland. It is the seat of the gmina (administrative district) called Gmina Cewice
__NOTOC__
Gmina Cewice ( csb, Céwice) is a rur ...
in
Kashubia pl, Kaszuby
, native_name_lang = csb, de, csb
, settlement_type = Historical region
, anthem = Zemia Rodnô
, image_map = Kashubians in Poland.png
, image_flag ...
. Only the following varieties may be sold as ''kaszëbskô malëna'': Senga Sengana, Elsanta, Honeoye that have been graded as Extra or Class I.
File:Dülmen, Kirchspiel, Erdbeerfeld -- 2015 -- 6492-6.jpg, Strawberry field in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany
File:Plasticulture.jpg, alt=A large strawberry field with plastic covering the earth around the strawberry plants., A field using the plasticulture method
Manuring and harvesting
Most strawberry plants are now fed with
artificial fertilizer
A fertilizer (American English) or fertiliser (British English; see spelling differences) is any material of natural or synthetic origin that is applied to soil or to plant tissues to supply plant nutrients. Fertilizers may be distinct from ...
s, both before and after harvesting, and often before planting in
plasticulture
The term plasticulture refers to the practice of using plastic materials in agricultural applications. The plastic materials themselves are often and broadly referred to as "ag plastics". Plasticulture ag plastics include soil fumigation film, i ...
.
To maintain top quality, berries are harvested at least every other day. The berries are picked with the caps still attached and with at least half an inch of stem left. Strawberries need to remain on the plant to fully ripen because they do not continue to ripen after being picked. Rotted and overripe berries are removed to minimize insect and disease problems. The berries do not get washed until just before consumption.
![Picker on a strawberry field in Quebec, Canada](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Picker_on_a_strawberry_field_in_Quebec%2C_Canada.jpg)
Soil test information and plant analysis results are used to determine fertility practices. Nitrogen fertilizer is needed at the beginning of every planting year. There are normally adequate levels of phosphorus and potash when fields have been fertilized for top yields. To provide more organic matter, a cover crop of wheat or rye is planted in the winter before planting the strawberries. Strawberries prefer a pH from 5.5 to 6.5, so lime is usually not applied.
The harvesting and cleaning process has not changed substantially over time. The delicate strawberries are still harvested by hand.
Grading and packing often occurs in the field, rather than in a processing facility.
In large operations, strawberries are cleaned by means of water streams and shaking conveyor belts.
Pests
Around 200 species of
pests
PESTS was an anonymous American activist group formed in 1986 to critique racism, tokenism, and exclusion in the art world. PESTS produced newsletters, posters, and other print material highlighting examples of discrimination in gallery represent ...
are known to attack strawberries both directly and indirectly.
These pests include
slug
Slug, or land slug, is a common name for any apparently shell-less terrestrial gastropod mollusc. The word ''slug'' is also often used as part of the common name of any gastropod mollusc that has no shell, a very reduced shell, or only a smal ...
s,
moth
Moths are a paraphyletic group of insects that includes all members of the order Lepidoptera that are not butterflies, with moths making up the vast majority of the order. There are thought to be approximately 160,000 species of moth, many of w ...
s,
fruit flies
Fruit fly may refer to:
Organisms
* Drosophilidae, a family of small flies, including:
** ''Drosophila'', the genus of small fruit flies and vinegar flies
** ''Drosophila melanogaster'' or common fruit fly
** ''Drosophila suzukii'' or Asian fruit ...
, chafers, strawberry root weevils, strawberry thrips, strawberry sap beetles, strawberry crown moth,
mite
Mites are small arachnids (eight-legged arthropods). Mites span two large orders of arachnids, the Acariformes and the Parasitiformes, which were historically grouped together in the subclass Acari, but genetic analysis does not show clear evid ...
s,
aphid
Aphids are small sap-sucking insects and members of the superfamily Aphidoidea. Common names include greenfly and blackfly, although individuals within a species can vary widely in color. The group includes the fluffy white woolly aphids. A t ...
s, and others.
The caterpillars of a number of species of
Lepidoptera
Lepidoptera ( ) is an order (biology), order of insects that includes butterfly, butterflies and moths (both are called lepidopterans). About 180,000 species of the Lepidoptera are described, in 126 Family (biology), families and 46 Taxonomic r ...
feed on strawberry plants. For example, the
ghost moth
The ghost moth or ghost swift (''Hepialus humuli'') is a moth of the family Hepialidae. It is common throughout Europe, except for in the far south-east.
Female ghost moths are larger than males, and exhibit sexual dimorphism with their differ ...
is known to be a pest of the strawberry plant.
The strawberry aphid, ''
Chaetosiphon fragaefolii
''Chaetosiphon fragaefolii'', the strawberry aphid, is a bug species in the genus '' Chaetosiphon'' found in the United States (Arizona), Argentina and Chile.
''C. fragaefolii'', along with '' C. thomasi'' and '' C. thomasi jacobi'', is a vecto ...
'', is a bug species found in the United States (Arizona), Argentina and Chile. It is a vector of the
strawberry mild yellow-edge virus
Strawberry mild yellow-edge virus (SMYEV) is a pathogenic plant virus.
Transmission
The virus is transmitted by aphid species in the genus '' Chaetosiphon'', mainly '' C. fragaefolii'', '' C. thomasi'', ''C. thomasi jacobi''. The virus cannot b ...
.
The amounts of
pesticides
Pesticides are substances that are meant to control pests. This includes herbicide, insecticide, nematicide, molluscicide, piscicide, avicide, rodenticide, bactericide, insect repellent, animal repellent, microbicide, fungicide, and lampric ...
required for
industrial production
Industrial production is a measure of output of the industrial sector of the economy. The industrial sector includes manufacturing, mining, and utilities. Although these sectors contribute only a small portion of gross domestic product (GDP), the ...
of strawberries ( in California per acre) have led to the strawberry leading the list of
EWG's "Dirty Dozen" of pesticide-contaminated produce.
Diseases
Strawberry plants can fall victim to a number of diseases, especially when subjected to stress.
The leaves may be infected by
powdery mildew
Powdery mildew is a fungal disease that affects a wide range of plants. Powdery mildew diseases are caused by many different species of ascomycete fungi in the order Erysiphales. Powdery mildew is one of the easier plant diseases to identify, as ...
,
leaf spot
A leaf spot is a limited, discoloured, diseased area of a leaf that is caused by fungal, bacterial or viral plant diseases, or by injuries from nematodes, insects, environmental factors, toxicity or herbicides. These discoloured spots or lesions ...
(caused by the fungus ''Sphaerella fragariae''),
leaf blight
Blight refers to a specific symptom affecting plants in response to infection by a pathogenic organism.
Description
Blight is a rapid and complete chlorosis, browning, then death of plant tissues such as leaves, branches, twigs, or floral org ...
(caused by the fungus ''
Phomopsis obscurans
''Phomopsis obscurans'' is a common fungus found in strawberry plants, which causes the disease of leaf blight. Common symptoms caused by the pathogen begin as small circular reddish-purple spots and enlarge to form V-shaped lesions that follow t ...
''), and by a variety of
slime mold
Slime mold or slime mould is an informal name given to several kinds of unrelated eukaryotic organisms with a life cycle that includes a free-living single-celled stage and the formation of spores. Spores are often produced in macroscopic mu ...
s.
The crown and roots may fall victim to red stele,
verticillium
''Verticillium'' is a genus of fungi in the division Ascomycota, and are an anamorphic form of the family Plectosphaerellaceae. The genus used to include diverse groups comprising saprobes and parasites of higher plants, insects, nematodes, mo ...
wilt,
black root rot, and
nematode
The nematodes ( or grc-gre, Νηματώδη; la, Nematoda) or roundworms constitute the phylum Nematoda (also called Nemathelminthes), with plant-Parasitism, parasitic nematodes also known as eelworms. They are a diverse animal phylum inhab ...
s.
The fruits are subject to damage from gray mold (''
Botrytis cinerea
''Botrytis cinerea'' is a necrotrophic fungus that affects many plant species, although its most notable hosts may be wine grapes. In viticulture, it is commonly known as "botrytis bunch rot"; in horticulture, it is usually called "grey mould" or ...
''),
rhizopus
''Rhizopus'' is a genus of common saprophytic fungi on plants and specialized parasites on animals. They are found in a wide variety of organic substances, including "mature fruits and vegetables", jellies, syrups, leather, bread, peanuts, and t ...
rot, and leather rot.
To prevent root-rotting, strawberries should be planted every four to five years in a new bed, at a different site.
The , ''
AtNPR1
''Arabidopsis thaliana'', the thale cress, mouse-ear cress or arabidopsis, is a small flowering plant native to Eurasia and Africa. ''A. thaliana'' is considered a weed; it is found along the shoulders of roads and in disturbed land.
A winter an ...
'', confers ''A. thaliana''s
broad-spectrum resistance
Plant disease resistance protects plants from pathogens in two ways: by pre-formed structures and chemicals, and by infection-induced responses of the immune system. Relative to a susceptible plant, disease resistance is the reduction of pathoge ...
when
transexpressed in ''F. ananassa''.
This resistance includes resistance to anthracnose, powdery mildew, and angular leaf spot.
A 1997 study assessed many and found all effective against gray mold (''B. cinerea'').
Both
Tribute
A tribute (; from Latin ''tributum'', "contribution") is wealth, often in kind, that a party gives to another as a sign of submission, allegiance or respect. Various ancient states exacted tribute from the rulers of land which the state conqu ...
and
Chandler
Chandler or The Chandler may refer to:
* Chandler (occupation), originally head of the medieval household office responsible for candles, now a person who makes or sells candles
* Ship chandler, a dealer in supplies or equipment for ships
Arts ...
were tested and benefited from the treatments, although there are large differences between the substance x variety effects.
Strawberry
metabolizes
Metabolism (, from el, μεταβολή ''metabolē'', "change") is the set of life-sustaining chemical reactions in organisms. The three main functions of metabolism are: the conversion of the energy in food to energy available to run cell ...
these volatiles, and does so more rapidly than either
blackberry
The blackberry is an edible fruit produced by many species in the genus ''Rubus'' in the family Rosaceae, hybrids among these species within the subgenus ''Rubus'', and hybrids between the subgenera ''Rubus'' and ''Idaeobatus''. The taxonomy of ...
or
grape
A grape is a fruit, botanically a berry, of the deciduous woody vines of the flowering plant genus ''Vitis''. Grapes are a non- climacteric type of fruit, generally occurring in clusters.
The cultivation of grapes began perhaps 8,000 years ago, ...
.
[
]
The plants can also develop disease from temperature extremes during winter.
Watering strawberry roots, and not the leaves, is preferred as moisture on leaves encourages fungal growth. Strawberries may also often appear conjoined together or deformed due to poor pollination.
Domestic cultivation
![Organic Gardener Holding a Large June Bearing Strawberry](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Organic_Gardener_Holding_a_Large_June_Bearing_Strawberry.jpg)
Strawberries are popular in home gardens, and numerous
cultivar
A cultivar is a type of cultivated plant that people have selected for desired traits and when propagated retain those traits. Methods used to propagate cultivars include: division, root and stem cuttings, offsets, grafting, tissue culture, ...
s have been selected for consumption and for exhibition purposes. The following cultivars have gained the
Royal Horticultural Society
The Royal Horticultural Society (RHS), founded in 1804 as the Horticultural Society of London, is the UK's leading gardening charity.
The RHS promotes horticulture through its five gardens at Wisley (Surrey), Hyde Hall (Essex), Harlow Carr (Nort ...
's
Award of Garden Merit
The Award of Garden Merit (AGM) is a long-established annual award for plants by the British Royal Horticultural Society (RHS). It is based on assessment of the plants' performance under UK growing conditions.
History
The Award of Garden Merit ...
:
Production
In 2020, world production of strawberries was 8.9 million
tonne
The tonne ( or ; symbol: t) is a unit of mass equal to 1000 kilograms. It is a non-SI unit accepted for use with SI. It is also referred to as a metric ton to distinguish it from the non-metric units of the short ton ( United State ...
s, led by China with 38% of the total, and the United States and Egypt as other significant producers (see table).
Due the relatively fragile nature of the strawberry, approximately 35 percent of the $2.2 billion United States crop was spoiled in 2020. This led to an
Idaho
Idaho ( ) is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the Western United States. To the north, it shares a small portion of the Canada–United States border with the province of British Columbia. It borders the states of Montana and Wyom ...
company planning to launch gene-edited strawberries in the near future in an effort to make them more durable and hardier. In the U.S. it costs growers around $35,000 per acre to plant and $35,000 per acre to harvest strawberries now, and more durable berries might reduce the rate of spoilage.
Marketing
![Strawberries at Ljubljana Central Market](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/Strawberries_at_Ljubljana_Central_Market.JPG)
In the United States in 2017, the collective commercial production of strawberries,
blueberries
Blueberries are a widely distributed and widespread group of perennial flowering plants with blue or purple berries. They are classified in the section ''Cyanococcus'' within the genus ''Vaccinium''. ''Vaccinium'' also includes cranberries, bi ...
,
raspberries
The raspberry is the edible fruit of a multitude of plant species in the genus ''Rubus'' of the rose family, most of which are in the subgenus '' Idaeobatus''. The name also applies to these plants themselves. Raspberries are perennial with w ...
, and
blackberries
The blackberry is an edible fruit produced by many species in the genus ''Rubus'' in the family Rosaceae, hybrids among these species within the subgenus ''Rubus'', and hybrids between the subgenera ''Rubus'' and ''Idaeobatus''. The taxonomy of ...
was a $6 billion industry dominated by the California growing and marketing company
Driscoll's
Driscoll's is a California-based seller of fresh strawberries and other berries. It is a fourth-generation family business that has been in the Reiter and Driscoll families since the late 1800s. In 2017, it controlled roughly one-third of the $6 ...
.
[ In 2017, strawberries alone were a $3.5 billion market of which 82% was for fresh fruit.]
To increase consumer demand in the 21st century, commercial producers of strawberries cultivated them mainly for favorable aroma characteristics similar to those of wild strawberries,[ in addition to having large size, heart-shape, glossy red exterior, firmness, and slow ripening for long ]shelf-life
Shelf life is the length of time that a commodity may be stored without becoming unfit for use, consumption, or sale. In other words, it might refer to whether a commodity should no longer be on a pantry shelf (unfit for use), or no longer on a ...
favorable to ship by ground transportation from farms to stores nationwide for consumption within two weeks of harvest.[ In US and Canadian ]grocery store
A grocery store ( AE), grocery shop ( BE) or simply grocery is a store that primarily retails a general range of food products, which may be fresh or packaged. In everyday U.S. usage, however, "grocery store" is a synonym for supermarket, a ...
s, fresh strawberries are typically sold in plastic clamshells, and are among the top fresh produce items in grocery revenues.[ One marketing analysis identified strawberries and other berries as a source of "happiness" for consumers.][
]
Culinary
In addition to being consumed fresh, strawberries can be frozen or made into jam or preserves
Fruit preserves are preparations of fruits whose main preserving agent is sugar and sometimes acid, often stored in glass jars and used as a condiment or spread.
There are many varieties of fruit preserves globally, distinguished by the method ...
, as well as dried and used in prepared foods, such as cereal bars. Strawberries and strawberry flavorings are a popular addition to dairy products, such as strawberry milk
Flavored milk is a sweetened dairy drink made with milk, sugar, flavorings, and sometimes food colorings. It may be sold as a pasteurized, refrigerated product, or as an ultra-high-temperature processing, ultra-high-temperature (UHT) treated produ ...
, strawberry ice cream
Strawberry ice cream is a flavor of ice cream made with strawberry or strawberry flavoring. It is made by blending in fresh strawberries or strawberry flavoring with the eggs, cream, vanilla and sugar used to make ice cream. Most strawberry ice ...
, strawberry milkshakes/smoothies
A smoothie is a beverage made by puréeing ingredients in a blender. A smoothie commonly has a liquid base, such as fruit juice or milk, yogurt, ice cream or cottage cheese. Other ingredients may be added, including fruits, vegetables, non-dai ...
and strawberry yogurts.
In the United Kingdom, "strawberries and cream" is a popular dessert consumed at the Wimbledon
Wimbledon most often refers to:
* Wimbledon, London, a district of southwest London
* Wimbledon Championships, the oldest tennis tournament in the world and one of the four Grand Slam championships
Wimbledon may also refer to:
Places London
* ...
tennis tournament. Strawberries and cream is also a staple snack in Mexico, usually available at ice cream parlors. In Sweden, strawberries are a traditional dessert served on Midsummer
Midsummer is a celebration of the season of summer usually held at a date around the summer solstice. It has pagan pre-Christian roots in Europe.
The undivided Christian Church designated June 24 as the feast day of the early Christian mart ...
's Eve. Depending on area, strawberry pie
Strawberry pie is a dessert food consisting mainly of strawberries and sugar in a pie crust, sometimes with gelatin. It is often served with whipped cream.
Preparation
Fresh strawberry pies are usually made with in-season sweet berries, w ...
, strawberry rhubarb pie
Rhubarb pie is a pie with a rhubarb filling. It is popular in the UK, where rhubarb has been cultivated since the 1600s, and the leaf stalks eaten since the 1700s. Besides diced rhubarb, it almost always contains a large amount of sugar to ba ...
, or strawberry shortcake
Shortcake generally refers to a dessert with a crumbly scone like texture. There is multiple variations of shortcake most of which are usually served with fruit and cream, one of the most popular being strawberry shortcake which is typically se ...
are also common. In Greece
Greece,, or , romanized: ', officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the southern tip of the Balkans, and is located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Greece shares land borders with ...
, strawberries may be sprinkled with sugar and then dipped in Metaxa
Metaxa ( el, Μεταξά) is a Greek amber spirit created by Spyros Metaxa in 1888. Its taste comes from the combination of Muscat wines from the island of Samos, aged wine distillates, and Mediterranean botanicals.
The Metaxa Collection cons ...
, a brandy
Brandy is a liquor produced by distilling wine. Brandy generally contains 35–60% alcohol by volume (70–120 US proof) and is typically consumed as an after-dinner digestif. Some brandies are aged in wooden casks. Others are coloured with ...
, and served as a dessert. In Italy, strawberries are used for various desserts and as a common flavoring for gelato
Gelato (; ) is the common word in Italian for all kinds of ice cream. In English, it specifically refers to a frozen dessert of Italian origin. Artisanal gelato in Italy generally contains 6%–9% butterfat, which is lower than other styles o ...
(gelato alla fragola).
Nutrients
Raw strawberries are 91% water, 8% carbohydrate
In organic chemistry, a carbohydrate () is a biomolecule consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water) and thus with the empirical formula (where ''m'' may or ma ...
s, 1% protein
Proteins are large biomolecules and macromolecules that comprise one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, respo ...
, and contain negligible fat (table). A 100 gram reference amount of strawberries supplies 33 kilocalorie
The calorie is a unit of energy. For historical reasons, two main definitions of "calorie" are in wide use. The large calorie, food calorie, or kilogram calorie was originally defined as the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of on ...
s, is a rich source of vitamin C
Vitamin C (also known as ascorbic acid and ascorbate) is a water-soluble vitamin found in citrus and other fruits and vegetables, also sold as a dietary supplement and as a topical 'serum' ingredient to treat melasma (dark pigment spots) an ...
(71% of the Daily Value
The Reference Daily Intake (RDI) used in nutrition labeling on food and dietary supplement products in the U.S. and Canada is the daily intake level of a nutrient that is considered to be sufficient to meet the requirements of 97–98% of health ...
, DV), a good source of manganese
Manganese is a chemical element with the symbol Mn and atomic number 25. It is a hard, brittle, silvery metal, often found in minerals in combination with iron. Manganese is a transition metal with a multifaceted array of industrial alloy use ...
(18% DV), and provides several other vitamins and dietary minerals in small amounts. Strawberries contain a modest amount of essential unsaturated fatty acid
In chemistry, particularly in biochemistry, a fatty acid is a carboxylic acid with an aliphatic chain, which is either saturated or unsaturated. Most naturally occurring fatty acids have an unbranched chain of an even number of carbon atoms, f ...
s in the achene
An achene (; ), also sometimes called akene and occasionally achenium or achenocarp, is a type of simple dry fruit produced by many species of flowering plants. Achenes are monocarpellate (formed from one carpel) and indehiscent (they do not ope ...
(seed) oil.
Phytochemicals
Garden strawberries contain the dimeric ellagitannin
The ellagitannins are a diverse class of hydrolyzable tannins, a type of polyphenol formed primarily from the oxidative linkage of galloyl groups in 1,2,3,4,6-pentagalloyl glucose. Ellagitannins differ from gallotannins, in that their galloyl group ...
agrimoniin which is an isomer of sanguiin H-6
Sanguiin H-6 is an ellagitannin.
Natural occurrence
Sanguiin H-6 can be found in Rosaceae such as the great burnet (''Sanguisorba officinalis''), in strawberries (''Fragaria × ananassa'') and in ''Rubus'' species such as red raspberries (''Rub ...
. Other polyphenols present include flavonoid
Flavonoids (or bioflavonoids; from the Latin word ''flavus'', meaning yellow, their color in nature) are a class of polyphenolic secondary metabolites found in plants, and thus commonly consumed in the diets of humans.
Chemically, flavonoids ...
s, such as anthocyanin
Anthocyanins (), also called anthocyans, are water-soluble vacuolar pigments that, depending on their pH, may appear red, purple, blue, or black. In 1835, the German pharmacist Ludwig Clamor Marquart gave the name Anthokyan to a chemical compo ...
s, flavanol
Flavan-3-ols (sometimes referred to as flavanols) are a subgroup of flavonoids. They are derivatives of flavans that possess a 2-phenyl-3,4-dihydro-2''H''-chromen-3-ol skeleton. Flavan-3-ols are structurally diverse and include a range of compo ...
s, flavonol
Flavonols are a class of flavonoids that have the 3-hydroxyflavone backbone (IUPAC name : 3-hydroxy-2-phenylchromen-4-one). Their diversity stems from the different positions of the phenolic -OH groups. They are distinct from flavanols (with "a ...
s and phenolic acid
Phenolic acids or phenolcarboxylic acids are types of aromatic acid compounds. Included in that class are substances containing a phenolic ring and an organic carboxylic acid function (C6-C1 skeleton). Two important naturally occurring types of ...
s, such as hydroxybenzoic acid Hydroxybenzoic acid may refer to several related chemical compounds:
* 2-Hydroxybenzoic acid (salicylic acid, ''o''-hydroxybenzoic acid)
* 3-Hydroxybenzoic acid (''m''-hydroxybenzoic acid)
* 4-Hydroxybenzoic acid (''p''-hydroxybenzoic acid)
See ...
and hydroxycinnamic acid
Hydroxycinnamic acids (hydroxycinnamates) are a class of aromatic acids or phenylpropanoids having a C6–C3 skeleton. These compounds are hydroxy derivatives of cinnamic acid.
In the category of phytochemicals that can be found in food, there ...
. Strawberries contain fisetin
Fisetin (7,3′,4′- flavon-3-ol) is a plant flavonol from the flavonoid group of polyphenols. It can be found in many plants, where it serves as a yellow/ochre colouring agent. It is also found in many fruits and vegetables, such as strawberries, ...
and possess higher levels of this flavonoid than other fruits. Although achenes comprise only about 1% of total fresh weight of a strawberry, they contribute 11% of the total polyphenol in the whole fruit; achene phytochemicals include ellagic acid
Ellagic acid is a polyphenol found in numerous fruits and vegetables. It is the dilactone of hexahydroxydiphenic acid.
Name
The name comes from the French term ''acide ellagique'', from the word ''galle'' spelled backwards because it can be ob ...
, ellagic acid glycoside
In chemistry, a glycoside is a molecule in which a sugar is bound to another functional group via a glycosidic bond. Glycosides play numerous important roles in living organisms. Many plants store chemicals in the form of inactive glycosides. ...
s, and ellagitannins.
Color
Pelargonidin-3-glucoside is the major anthocyanin in strawberries and cyanidin-3-glucoside
Chrysanthemin is an anthocyanin. It is the 3-glucoside of cyanidin.
Natural occurrences
Chrysanthemin can be found in the roselle plant (''Hibiscus sabdariffa'', Malvaceae), different Japanese angiosperms, '' Rhaponticum'' (Asteraceae), The fr ...
is found in smaller proportions. Although glucose seems to be the most common substituting sugar in strawberry anthocyanins, rutinose, arabinose, and rhamnose conjugates have been found in some strawberry cultivars.
Purple minor pigments consisting of dimeric anthocyanins (flavanol-anthocyanin adducts : catechin(4α→8)pelargonidin 3-O-β-glucopyranoside, epicatechin(4α→8)pelargonidin 3-O-β-glucopyranoside, afzelechin(4α→8)pelargonidin 3-O-β-glucopyranoside and epiafzelechin(4α→8)pelargonidin 3-O-β-glucopyranoside) can also be found in strawberries.
Flavor and fragrance
As strawberry flavor and fragrance
An aroma compound, also known as an odorant, aroma, fragrance or flavoring, is a chemical compound that has a smell or odor. For an individual chemical or class of chemical compounds to impart a smell or fragrance, it must be sufficiently vol ...
are characteristics that may appeal to consumers, they are used widely in a variety of manufacturing, including foods, beverages, confection
Confectionery is the art of making confections, which are food items that are rich in sugar and carbohydrates. Exact definitions are difficult. In general, however, confectionery is divided into two broad and somewhat overlapping categories ...
s, perfumes and cosmetics.
Sweetness, fragrance and complex flavor are favorable attributes. In plant breeding
Plant breeding is the science of changing the traits of plants in order to produce desired characteristics. It has been used to improve the quality of nutrition in products for humans and animals. The goals of plant breeding are to produce cro ...
and farming, emphasis is placed on sugars, acids, and volatile compounds, which improve the taste and fragrance of a ripe strawberry. Ester
In chemistry, an ester is a compound derived from an oxoacid (organic or inorganic) in which at least one hydroxyl group () is replaced by an alkoxy group (), as in the substitution reaction of a carboxylic acid and an alcohol. Glycerides ar ...
s, terpene
Terpenes () are a class of natural products consisting of compounds with the formula (C5H8)n for n > 1. Comprising more than 30,000 compounds, these unsaturated hydrocarbons are produced predominantly by plants, particularly conifers. Terpenes ar ...
s, and furans are chemical compounds having the strongest relationships to strawberry flavor and fragrance, with a total of 31 out of some 360 volatile compounds significantly correlated to favorable flavor and fragrance.[ In breeding strawberries for the commercial market in the United States, the volatile compounds, methyl anthranilate and gamma-decalactone prominent in aromatic wild strawberries, are especially desired for their "sweet and fruity" aroma characteristics.][
Chemicals present in the fragrance of strawberries include:
* methyl acetate
* (''E'')-2-hexen-1-ol
* (''E'')-2-hexenal
* (''E'')-2-pentenal
* (''E'',''E'')-2,4-hexadienal
* (''Z'')-2-hexenyl acetate
* (''Z'')-3-hexenyl acetate
* 1-hexanol
* 2-heptanol
* 2-heptanone
* 2-methyl butanoic acid
* 2-methylbutyl acetate
* alpha-terpineol
* amyl acetate
* amyl butyrate
* benzaldehyde
* benzyl acetate
* butyl acetate
* butyl butyrate
* butyl hexanoate
* butyric acid
* Caprylic acid, octanoic acid
* decyl acetate
* decyl butyrate
* d-limonene
* ethyl 2-methylbutanoate
* ethyl 3-methylbutanoate
* ethyl acetate
* ethyl benzoate
* ethyl butyrate
* ethyl decanoate
* ethyl hexanoate
* ethyl octanoate
* ethyl pentanoate
* Ethyl propionate, ethyl propanoate
* ethyl-2-hexenoate
* farnesene, α-farnesene
* farnesene, β-farnesene
* furaneol
* gamma-Decalactone, γ-decalactone][
* γ-dodecalactone
* heptanoic acid
* hexanal, ''n''-hexanal
* hexanoic acid
* hexyl acetate
* isoamyl acetate
* isoamyl hexanoate
* isopropyl acetate
* isopropyl butanoate
* isopropyl hexanoate
* linalool
* mesifurane
* methyl anthranilate][
* methyl butyrate
* methyl hexanoate
* methyl isovalerate
* methyl octanoate
* methyl pentanoate
* Methyl propionate, methyl propanoate
* Nerolidol, (''E'')-nerolidol
* nonanal
* nonanoic acid
* ocimenol
* octyl acetate
* octyl butyrate
* octyl hexanoate
* octyl isovalerate
* propyl butyrate
* propyl hexanoate
]
Genetics
Modern strawberries are octaploid, octoploid (8 sets of chromosomes). The genome sequence of the garden strawberry was published in 2019.
Allergy
Some people experience an anaphylactoid reaction to eating strawberries. The most common form of this reaction is oral allergy syndrome, but symptoms may also mimic hay fever or include dermatitis or hives, and, in severe cases, may cause breathing problems. Proteomic studies indicate that the allergen may be tied to a protein for the red anthocyanin biosynthesis expressed in strawberry ripening, named Fra a1 (Fragaria allergen1). Homology (biology), Homologous proteins are found in birch pollen and apple, suggesting that people may develop cross-reactivity to all three species.
White-fruited strawberry cultivar
A cultivar is a type of cultivated plant that people have selected for desired traits and when propagated retain those traits. Methods used to propagate cultivars include: division, root and stem cuttings, offsets, grafting, tissue culture, ...
s, lacking Fra a1, may be an option for strawberry allergy sufferers. Since they lack a protein necessary for normal ripening by anthocyanin synthesis of red pigments, they do not turn the mature berries of other cultivars red. They ripen but remain white, pale yellow or "golden", appearing like immature berries; this also has the advantage of making them less attractive to birds. A virtually allergen-free cultivar named 'Sofar' is available.
See also
* California Strawberry Commission
* Fraise Tagada (strawberry-shaped candy popular in France)
* List of culinary fruits
* List of strawberry cultivars
* List of strawberry dishes
* List of strawberry topics
* Musk strawberry (hautbois strawberry)
* Plant City, Florida (winter strawberry capital of the world)
* Pineberry
* Pomology
* Strawberry cake
* Strawberry sauce
References
External links
''Fragaria'' × ''ananassa'' data from GRIN Taxonomy Database
*
*
*
{{Authority control
Strawberries
Fragaria
Hybrid fruit
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Crops
Symbols of Delaware
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