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Phallaceae is a
family Family (from la, familia) is a Social group, group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or Affinity (law), affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose of the family is to maintain the well-being of its ...
of fungi, commonly known as stinkhorns, within the order
Phallales The Phallales are an order of fungi in the subclass Phallomycetidae. The order contains two families: the Claustulaceae, and the Phallaceae, which, according to a 2008 estimate, collectively contain 26 genera and 88 species. See also * Lis ...
. Stinkhorns have a worldwide distribution, but are especially prevalent in
tropical The tropics are the regions of Earth surrounding the Equator. They are defined in latitude by the Tropic of Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere at N and the Tropic of Capricorn in the Southern Hemisphere at S. The tropics are also referred to ...
regions. They are known for their foul-smelling, sticky
spore In biology, a spore is a unit of sexual or asexual reproduction that may be adapted for dispersal and for survival, often for extended periods of time, in unfavourable conditions. Spores form part of the life cycles of many plants, algae, f ...
masses, or
gleba Gleba (, from Latin ''glaeba, glēba'', "lump") is the fleshy spore-bearing inner mass of certain fungi such as the puffball or stinkhorn. The gleba is a solid mass of spores, generated within an enclosed area within the sporocarp. The continu ...
, borne on the end of a stalk called the receptaculum. The characteristic fruiting-body structure, a single, unbranched receptaculum with an externally attached gleba on the upper part, distinguishes the Phallaceae from other families in the Phallales. The spore mass typically smells of
carrion Carrion () is the decaying flesh of dead animals, including human flesh. Overview Carrion is an important food source for large carnivores and omnivores in most ecosystems. Examples of carrion-eaters (or scavengers) include crows, vultures, c ...
or dung, and attracts
flies Flies are insects of the order Diptera, the name being derived from the Greek δι- ''di-'' "two", and πτερόν ''pteron'' "wing". Insects of this order use only a single pair of wings to fly, the hindwings having evolved into advanced ...
,
beetles Beetles are insects that form the order Coleoptera (), in the superorder Endopterygota. Their front pair of wings are hardened into wing-cases, elytra, distinguishing them from most other insects. The Coleoptera, with about 400,000 describ ...
and other insects to help disperse the spores. Although there is great diversity in body structure shape among the various
genera Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus comes above species and below family. In binomial nomenclat ...
, all species in the Phallaceae begin their development as oval or round structures known as "eggs". According to a 2008 estimate, the family contains 21 genera and 77 species.


Description

Species of stinkhorns have
gasteroid The gasteroid fungi are a group of fungi in the Basidiomycota. Species were formerly placed in the obsolete class Gasteromycetes Fr. (literally "stomach fungi"), or the equally obsolete order Gasteromycetales Rea, because they produce spores ins ...
, or internally produced spores. Fruit bodies originate as a gelatinous, spherical, or egg-shaped structure that may be completely or partially buried underground. The peridium, the outer layer of the egg, is white, or purple/red, with two or three layers. The outer layer is thin, membranous, and elastic, while the inner layer is thicker, gelatinous, and continuous. At maturity, the peridium opens up and remains as a volva at the base of the receptaculum. The fertile portion of the fruiting body is often borne on the end of a wide, fleshy or spongy stalk (as in the
Phallales The Phallales are an order of fungi in the subclass Phallomycetidae. The order contains two families: the Claustulaceae, and the Phallaceae, which, according to a 2008 estimate, collectively contain 26 genera and 88 species. See also * Lis ...
), which may be cylindrical, star-shaped, or reticulate (forming a network). They may be brightly colored, sometimes with a lattice- or veil-like membrane enclosing and protecting the spores. The spore-containing substance, the
gleba Gleba (, from Latin ''glaeba, glēba'', "lump") is the fleshy spore-bearing inner mass of certain fungi such as the puffball or stinkhorn. The gleba is a solid mass of spores, generated within an enclosed area within the sporocarp. The continu ...
, is typically
gelatin Gelatin or gelatine (from la, gelatus meaning "stiff" or "frozen") is a translucent, colorless, flavorless food ingredient, commonly derived from collagen taken from animal body parts. It is brittle when dry and rubbery when moist. It may also ...
ous, often foul-smelling, and deliquescent (becoming liquid from the absorption of water). The gleba is formed on the exterior face of the cap or the upper part of the receptacle. The
basidia A basidium () is a microscopic sporangium (a spore-producing structure) found on the hymenophore of fruiting bodies of basidiomycete fungi which are also called tertiary mycelium, developed from secondary mycelium. Tertiary mycelium is highly-c ...
are small and narrowly club-shaped or
fusiform Fusiform means having a spindle-like shape that is wide in the middle and tapers at both ends. It is similar to the lemon-shape, but often implies a focal broadening of a structure that continues from one or both ends, such as an aneurysm on a b ...
, short-lived (evanescent), with four to eight
sterigmata In biology, a sterigma (pl. sterigmata) is a small supporting structure. It commonly refers to an extension of the basidium (the spore-bearing cells) consisting of a basal filamentous part and a slender projection which carries a spore at the ti ...
. The spores are usually ellipsoid or cylindrical in shape,
hyaline A hyaline substance is one with a glassy appearance. The word is derived from el, ὑάλινος, translit=hyálinos, lit=transparent, and el, ὕαλος, translit=hýalos, lit=crystal, glass, label=none. Histopathology Hyaline cartilage is ...
or pale brown, smooth, more or less smooth-walled, and truncated at the base. The gelatinous layer of the stinkhorn '' (Clathrus ruber)'' contains high concentrations of potassium, calcium, manganese, and iron. A moderate amount of calcium is found in the receptacle and
gleba Gleba (, from Latin ''glaeba, glēba'', "lump") is the fleshy spore-bearing inner mass of certain fungi such as the puffball or stinkhorn. The gleba is a solid mass of spores, generated within an enclosed area within the sporocarp. The continu ...
as well as a high amount of manganese is also found in the gleba. Retaining a high potassium concentration is important for the growth of the stem of the fruiting body called the carpophore, where potassium plays a key component in regulating osmotic pressure. This osmotic pressure helps maintain the shape of the carpophore. The high concentration of potassium in the plant cell and the low permeability of the cell membrane also drives water into the cell through
flux Flux describes any effect that appears to pass or travel (whether it actually moves or not) through a surface or substance. Flux is a concept in applied mathematics and vector calculus which has many applications to physics. For transport ph ...
. The calcium found in the gelatinous layer contributes to the slimy characteristics of the gel and protects the carpophore during growth. The strong adhesive gelatinous layer consists of
polysaccharide Polysaccharides (), or polycarbohydrates, are the most abundant carbohydrates found in food. They are long chain polymeric carbohydrates composed of monosaccharide units bound together by glycosidic linkages. This carbohydrate can react with wa ...
s that are formed by the sequestration of calcium ions. The high manganese and iron concentrations in the gelatinous layer and gleba are theorized to produce enzymes that produce sugars and odorous compounds that play a role in attracting insects.


Genera

; ''
Anthurus ''Anthurus'' is a genus of fungi in the family Phallaceae. Species , Species Fungorum ''Index Fungorum'' is an international project to index all formal names (scientific names) in the fungus kingdom. the project is based at the Royal Bo ...
'' Kalchbr. & MacOwan (1880):Fruiting bodies have a short stalk from which arises a spore-bearing structure (the receptaculum) of 5–8 arched arms. These arms, initially joined at the top, disconnect and curve irregularly to expose the inner surface of each arm, which is covered with green spore-containing gleba. Spores are 3–4 × 1–1.5 μm.Ellis and Ellis, p. 219. ; '' Aporophallus'' Möller (1895) ; '' Aseroë'' Labill. (1800):Mature fruiting bodies contain a roughly cylindrical white or pinkish stalk approximately 6 × 2 cm, with a volva at the base. At the top is a bright red disc with a variable number of arms, typically 3–7 cm long. The gleba found on the disc and inner side of the arms is slimy, foetid, and green colored. Spores are
hyaline A hyaline substance is one with a glassy appearance. The word is derived from el, ὑάλινος, translit=hyálinos, lit=transparent, and el, ὕαλος, translit=hýalos, lit=crystal, glass, label=none. Histopathology Hyaline cartilage is ...
, with dimensions of 4–6 1.5–2 μm. '' Aseroë rubra'', an Australian and Pacific species which has spread to Europe and North America. ;'' Blumenavia'' Möller (1895) ; ''
Clathrus ''Clathrus'' is a genus of fungi of the family Phallaceae, the stinkhorn fungi. As with other members of the family, mature fruit bodies are covered with olive-brown slimy gleba, containing spores, that attracts flies. These fungi are saprobic ...
'' P. Micheli ex L. (1753):Fruiting bodies are latticed (clathrate), and made of hollow tubular arms that originate from the basal tissue within the volva. Spores are elliptical, smooth, hyaline, with dimensions of 4–6 ×1.5–2.5 μm.Miller and Miller, p. 80. Examples include ''
Clathrus ruber ''Clathrus ruber'' is a species of fungus in the family Phallaceae, and the type species of the genus ''Clathrus''. It is commonly known as the latticed stinkhorn, the basket stinkhorn, or the red cage, alluding to the striking fruit bodies that ...
'', the lattice stinkhorn, ''
Clathrus archeri ''Clathrus archeri'' (synonyms ''Lysurus archeri'', ''Anthurus archeri'', ''Pseudocolus archeri''), commonly known as octopus stinkhorn or devil's fingers, is a fungus which has a global distribution. Using rDNA, Geastrales, Gauteriales and Phal ...
'', the octopus stinkhorn, and ''
Clathrus columnatus ''Clathrus columnatus'', commonly known as the column stinkhorn, is a saprobic species of basidiomycete fungus in the family Phallaceae. It has a widespread distribution, and has been found in Africa, Australasia, and the Americas. It may have ...
'', the columned stinkhorn. ;'' Colus'' Cavalier & Séchier (1835) : A genus of four species with fruit bodies that are a short stalk from which six columns arise, joining at the top to form a red, arching, clathrate receptaculum. The gleba is smeared on the inside surface of the receptaculum.Miller and Miller, p. 91. ; '' Echinophalus'' Henn. (1898) ; '' Endophallus'' Zang & Petersen (1989): Contains a single species, ''E. yunnanensis'' found in China, that resembles ''Phallus'' except for a peridium that is separated from the base of the stem and which does not persist as a volva. ; '' Ileodictyon'' Tul. ex M. Raoul (1844):Fruiting bodies are latticed (clathrate), and have gelatinous arms that lie sessile within the volva. Spores are elliptical, and have dimensions of 4–6 1.5–2.5 μm. The New Zealand native, '' Ileodictyon cibarium'', known as the basket fungus, has a fruiting body shaped somewhat like a round or oval ball with interlaced or latticed branches. ; ''
Itajahya ''Itajahya'' is a fungal genus in the family Phallaceae. The genus, widespread in tropical and subtropical areas, contains three species. Characters in this genus include a white calyptra (tissue which covers the top of the basidiocarp, fruit bod ...
'' Möller (1895):Characters in this genus include a white calyptra (tissue which covers the top of the fruiting body to which the gleba is attached), lamellate plates covered with gleba. The gleba has a white mottled surface, and the pileus appears wig-like when removed of the gleba. The thick, stout stalk has many chambered walls. ; '' Kobayasia'' (Kobayasi) S. Imai & A. Kawam. (1958): This genus circumscribes the single species ''Kobayasia nipponica'', found in Japan in 1958. ; '' Laternea'' Turpin (1822): ; '' Ligiella'' J.A. Sáenz (1980):Fruiting bodies are 4.5–6.5 cm long, 2.2–5 cm in diameter, and have four or five thick white chambered arms that are joined at the top, but free at the base. This
monotypic In biology, a monotypic taxon is a taxonomic group (taxon) that contains only one immediately subordinate taxon. A monotypic species is one that does not include subspecies or smaller, infraspecific taxa. In the case of genera, the term "unispec ...
genus, containing the single species ''L. rodrigueziana'', is known only from
Costa Rica Costa Rica (, ; ; literally "Rich Coast"), officially the Republic of Costa Rica ( es, República de Costa Rica), is a country in the Central American region of North America, bordered by Nicaragua to the north, the Caribbean Sea to the no ...
. ; '' Lysurus'' Fr. (1823):Fruiting bodies consist of a long stalk with 3 or 4 short, thick arms. These arms, initially joined together, but usually separate at maturity, are covered with the brownish-olivaceous gleba. Spores are ellipsoidal, with dimensions of 4–5 × 1.5–2 μm. ; ''
Mutinus ''Mutinus'' is a genus of fungi in the family Phallaceae. The genus was first described by Elias Magnus Fries in 1849. According to the ''Dictionary of the Fungi'' (10th edition, 2008), the widespread genus contains 12 species. Species Etymo ...
'' (Huds.) Fr. (1849):The mature fruiting body has a spongy, cylindrical hollow stalk which ends in a slender, tapered, sometimes curved head covered with the dark olivaceous, slimy gleba. In older specimens, the gleba may be washed or worn off to show the orange or red color of the head itself. Notable species include the dog stinkhorn '' Mutinus caninus''. ; '' Neolysurus'' O.K. Mill., Ovrebo & Burk (1991): This genus contains the single species ''Neolysurus arcipulvinus'', described from
Costa Rica Costa Rica (, ; ; literally "Rich Coast"), officially the Republic of Costa Rica ( es, República de Costa Rica), is a country in the Central American region of North America, bordered by Nicaragua to the north, the Caribbean Sea to the no ...
. The stipe and arms have a tubular construction, similar to species from ''Lysurus''. ''Neolysurus'' is unique in having a long stipe, ending in arms or columns that branch and interconnect to support a cushion-shaped, olive green gleba. The glebal cushion is divided into polygonal compartments by a fine pinkish white, solid mesh. The
hymenium The hymenium is the tissue layer on the hymenophore of a fungal fruiting body where the cells develop into basidia or asci, which produce spores. In some species all of the cells of the hymenium develop into basidia or asci, while in others some ...
is continuous between the mesh. ; ''
Phallus A phallus is a penis (especially when erect), an object that resembles a penis, or a mimetic image of an erect penis. In art history a figure with an erect penis is described as ithyphallic. Any object that symbolically—or, more precisel ...
'' Junius ex L. (1753):In species of ''Phallus'', the receptaculum is a tall unbranched stalk that ends in a
cap A cap is a flat headgear, usually with a visor. Caps have crowns that fit very close to the head. They made their first appearance as early as 3200 BC. Caps typically have a visor, or no brim at all. They are popular in casual and informal se ...
-like structure that bears the gleba. Notable species include ''
Phallus impudicus ''Phallus impudicus'', known colloquially as the common stinkhorn, is a widespread fungus in the Phallaceae (stinkhorn) family. It is recognizable for its foul odor and its phallic shape when mature, the latter feature giving rise to several ...
'', the common stinkhorn, '' Phallus hadriani'', '' Phallus ravenelii'', and ''
Phallus indusiatus ''Phallus indusiatus'', commonly called the bamboo mushrooms, bamboo pith, long net stinkhorn, crinoline stinkhorn or veiled lady, is a fungus in the family Phallaceae, or stinkhorns. It has a cosmopolitan distribution in tropical areas, and ...
'' (syn. ''Dictyophora indusiata''), the Chinese "bamboo fungus", eaten as a food in southwestern China after the foul smelling cap is removed. ; '' Protubera'' Möller (1895):Fruiting bodies are egg-shaped, 2.2–3.5 cm in diameter by 3–4 cm high, with a dull white, soft exoperidium (roughly 1 mm thick) and a grayish exoperidium (3–4 mm thick). The gleba is contained within internal chambers that are separated by whitish, gelatinous tissue that originates from a columella-like, gelatinous central core. Spores are elliptical, smooth, nearly hyaline, and 3.5–4.5 1.5–2 μm.Miller and Miller, p. 83. ; '' Protuberella'' (S. Imai) S. Imai & Kawam. (1958):This genus resembles the ''Protubera'', except that the tissue is "gelatinous fleshy in the peridium and not so distinctly gelatinous as in ''Protubera maracuja'', they are less gelatinous in the nature of the sterile strands than those of ''P. maracuja''". Spores are clylindric, thin-walled, and 3.7–5 2–2.5 μm. This monotypic genus contains the single species ''Protuberella borealis'', known only from Asia. ;'' Pseudoclathrus'' B. Liu & Y.S. Bau (1980) ; '' Pseudocolus'' Lloyd (1907) ; '' Staheliomyces'' E. Fisch. (1921)


Volatile compounds

The number and type of volatile compounds produced by stinkhorn mushrooms changes throughout its life course. When the stinkhorn is still in its egg stage, the total amount of volatile substances is relatively low. The sulfuric odorous compounds (that attract insects) is absent. During this stage the mushroom’s veil covers up the slime covered cap that contains the spores. When the stinkhorn grows into a more mature-fruit body, there are over twenty-two volatile compounds found in the mature-fruit bodies including dimethyl oligosulfides, aroma-active
phenylalanine Phenylalanine (symbol Phe or F) is an essential α-amino acid with the formula . It can be viewed as a benzyl group substituted for the methyl group of alanine, or a phenyl group in place of a terminal hydrogen of alanine. This essential amino a ...
s and various
terpenoid The terpenoids, also known as isoprenoids, are a class of naturally occurring organic chemicals derived from the 5-carbon compound isoprene and its derivatives called terpenes, diterpenes, etc. While sometimes used interchangeably with "terpenes" ...
s that act as insect attractants. In an over-ripe stinkhorn, forty-one volatile components are present, many of which also act as insect attractants. Dimethyl oligosulfides are not as commonly found in over-ripe fruit as they were in the mature fruit bodies since many of the insects already carried the smelly slime away. The stinkhorn contains compounds of
carrion Carrion () is the decaying flesh of dead animals, including human flesh. Overview Carrion is an important food source for large carnivores and omnivores in most ecosystems. Examples of carrion-eaters (or scavengers) include crows, vultures, c ...
, such as oligosulfides, and of feces, such as
phenol Phenol (also called carbolic acid) is an aromatic organic compound with the molecular formula . It is a white crystalline solid that is volatile. The molecule consists of a phenyl group () bonded to a hydroxy group (). Mildly acidic, it req ...
,
indole Indole is an aromatic heterocyclic organic compound with the formula C8 H7 N. It has a bicyclic structure, consisting of a six-membered benzene ring fused to a five-membered pyrrole ring. Indole is widely distributed in the natural environmen ...
and
p-cresol ''para''-Cresol, also 4-methylphenol, is an organic compound with the formula CH3C6H4(OH). It is a colourless solid that is widely used intermediate in the production of other chemicals. It is a derivative of phenol and is an isomer of ''o'' ...
. This provides evidence for mimicry of carrion and feces and convergence in the putrid scents of fungus. The stinkhorn’s scent is similar to that of rotten meat and dog feces. This scent profile supports the assumption that the stinkhorn mimics fly brood sites and food sources. The flies are being lured in by the exploitation of their innate attraction to smell of the decaying animal matter that the stinkhorn gives off.


References


Books cited

* *


External links

* *
Index Fungorum


* ttp://www.mushroomexpert.com/phallaceae.html Stinkhorns: The Phallaceae and Clathraceae {{Authority control Mushroom types Phallales Basidiomycota families Taxa named by August Carl Joseph Corda Taxa described in 1842