meteorology Meteorology is a branch of the atmospheric sciences (which include atmospheric chemistry and physics) with a major focus on weather forecasting. The study of meteorology dates back millennia, though significant progress in meteorology did not ...

, station models are symbolic illustrations showing the

weather Weather is the state of the atmosphere, describing for example the degree to which it is hot or cold, wet or dry, calm or stormy, clear or cloudy. On Earth, most weather phenomena occur in the lowest layer of the planet's atmosphere, the ...

occurring at a given reporting station. Meteorologists created the station model to fit a number of weather elements into a small space on

weather map A weather map, also known as synoptic weather chart, displays various meteorological features across a particular area at a particular point in time and has various symbols which all have specific meanings. Such maps have been in use since the m ...

s. This allows map users to analyze patterns in

atmospheric pressure Atmospheric pressure, also known as barometric pressure (after the barometer), is the pressure within the atmosphere of Earth. The standard atmosphere (symbol: atm) is a unit of pressure defined as , which is equivalent to 1013.25 millibars, 7 ...

temperature Temperature is a physical quantity that expresses quantitatively the perceptions of hotness and coldness. Temperature is measured with a thermometer. Thermometers are calibrated in various temperature scales that historically have relied o ...

wind Wind is the natural movement of air or other gases relative to a planet's surface. Winds occur on a range of scales, from thunderstorm flows lasting tens of minutes, to local breezes generated by heating of land surfaces and lasting a few hou ...

speed In everyday use and in kinematics, the speed (commonly referred to as ''v'') of an object is the magnitude of the change of its position over time or the magnitude of the change of its position per unit of time; it is thus a scalar quanti ...

and direction, cloud cover,

precipitation In meteorology, precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravitational pull from clouds. The main forms of precipitation include drizzle, rain, sleet, snow, ice pellets, graupel and hail. ...

, and other parameters. The most common station plots depict

surface weather observation Surface weather observations are the fundamental data used for safety as well as climatological reasons to forecast weather and issue warnings worldwide. They can be taken manually, by a weather observer, by computer through the use of automate ...

s although upper air plots at various mandatory levels are also frequently depicted. Station model plots use an internationally accepted coding convention that has changed little since August 1, 1941. Elements in the plot show the key weather elements, including temperature,

dew point The dew point is the temperature to which air must be cooled to become saturated with water vapor, assuming constant air pressure and water content. When cooled below the dew point, moisture capacity is reduced and airborne water vapor will cond ...

, wind, cloud cover, air pressure, pressure tendency, and precipitation.Dr Elizabeth R. Tuttle (2005)
Weather Maps.
J. B. Calvert. Retrieved on 2007-05-10.

Measurement location and units

Weather maps primarily use the station model to show surface weather conditions, but the model can also show the weather aloft as reported by a weather balloon's

radiosonde A radiosonde is a battery-powered telemetry instrument carried into the atmosphere usually by a weather balloon that measures various atmospheric parameters and transmits them by radio to a ground receiver. Modern radiosondes measure or calcula ...

or a pilot's report.

Plotted winds

The station model uses a wind barb to show both wind direction and speed. The wind barb shows the speed using "flags" on the end. * Each half of a flag depicts * Each full flag depicts * Each pennant (filled triangle) depicts Winds are depicted as blowing from the direction the flags are facing. Therefore, a northeast wind will be depicted with a line extending from the cloud circle to the northeast, with flags indicating wind speed on the northeast end of this line.JetStream (2008)
How to read weather maps.
National Weather Service. Retrieved on 2007-05-16. Once plotted on a map, an analysis of

isotach A contour line (also isoline, isopleth, or isarithm) of a function of two variables is a curve along which the function has a constant value, so that the curve joins points of equal value. It is a plane section of the three-dimensional grap ...

s (lines of equal wind speeds) can be accomplished. Isotachs are particularly useful in diagnosing the location of the jet stream on upper level constant pressure charts, usually at or above the 300 hPa level. The flags and pennants point to the low pressure, so it is possible to determine at which hemisphere the station is standing. The barbs in the figure at the right are located at the

Northern Hemisphere The Northern Hemisphere is the half of Earth that is north of the Equator. For other planets in the Solar System, north is defined as being in the same celestial hemisphere relative to the invariable plane of the solar system as Earth's Nort ...

, because the wind is circling counter clock-wise around a

low-pressure area In meteorology, a low-pressure area, low area or low is a region where the atmospheric pressure is lower than that of surrounding locations. Low-pressure areas are commonly associated with inclement weather (such as cloudy, windy, with possible ...

at the Northern Hemisphere (the wind is blowing in the opposite direction at the Southern Hemisphere, see also

Buys Ballot's law In meteorology, Buys Ballot's law () may be expressed as follows: In the Northern Hemisphere, if a person stands with their back to the wind, the atmospheric pressure is low to the left, high to the right. This is because wind travels counterclo ...

). More than a century ago, winds were initially plotted as arrows facing downwind, with feathers on both sides of the staff to indicate wind speed.

United States Weather Bureau The National Weather Service (NWS) is an agency of the United States federal government that is tasked with providing weather forecasts, warnings of hazardous weather, and other weather-related products to organizations and the public for the p ...

(1871)
Daily Weather Map: January 1, 1871.
Retrieved on 2008-01-22. In the United States, the change to the modern convention of flags shown on one side of the staff to indicate wind speed took effect on August 1, 1941.

Cloud cover

Along with wind direction, cloud cover is one of the oldest atmospheric conditions to be coded on a station model.

(1941)
Daily Weather Map: July 31, 1941.
Retrieved on 2008-01-22. The circle in the middle of the station model represents cloud cover. In the

United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Europe, off the north-western coast of the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotland, Wales and North ...

, when the observation is taken from an automated weather observation site, the shape is a triangle. If the shape is completely filled in, it is overcast. If conditions are completely clear, the circle or triangle is empty. If conditions are partly cloudy, the circle or triangle is partially filled in. The cloud cover shape has different looks depending upon how many

okta In meteorology, an okta is a unit of measurement used to describe the amount of cloud cover at any given location such as a weather station. Sky conditions are estimated in terms of how many eighths of the sky are covered in cloud, ranging from ...

s (eighths of the sky) are covered by cloud. A sky half full of clouds would have a circle that was half white and half black. Below the shape indicating sky cover, the station model can indicate the coverage of low clouds, in oktas, and the ceiling height in hundreds of feet. The ceiling height is the height at which more than half the sky is covered by clouds. For pilots, knowledge of the sky cover helps determine if

visual flight rules In aviation, visual flight rules (VFR) are a set of regulations under which a pilot operates an aircraft in weather conditions generally clear enough to allow the pilot to see where the aircraft is going. Specifically, the weather must be better ...

(VFR) are being met. Knowing the degree of cloud cover can help determine whether or not various

weather fronts A weather front is a boundary separating air masses for which several characteristics differ, such as air density, wind, temperature, and humidity. Disturbed and unstable weather due to these differences often arises along the boundary. For in ...

, such as

cold front A cold front is the leading edge of a cooler mass of air at ground level that replaces a warmer mass of air and lies within a pronounced surface trough of low pressure. It often forms behind an extratropical cyclone (to the west in the Norther ...

s or

warm front A warm front is a density discontinuity located at the leading edge of a homogeneous warm air mass, and is typically located on the equator-facing edge of an isotherm gradient. Warm fronts lie within broader troughs of low pressure than cold fro ...

s, have passed by a location. A

nephanalysis A nephanalaysis is the analysis of a Synoptic scale meteorology, synoptic chart focusing on the types and amount of clouds and precipitation. A nephanalysis can be used to avoid hazardous weather areas, by ships preparing routes for cruises, and to ...

, contouring areas that are cloudy with scalloped lines, can be performed to indicate a system's cloud and precipitation pattern. This technique is rarely performed nowadays, due to the prevalence of

satellite A satellite or artificial satellite is an object intentionally placed into orbit in outer space. Except for passive satellites, most satellites have an electricity generation system for equipment on board, such as solar panels or radioisotope ...

imagery worldwide.

Cloud types

Above or below the circle for manned stations (automatic stations do not report cloud types) that indicates sky cover can lie one or more symbols indicating cloud types in any of the low, middle, and high-étages for

tropospheric The troposphere is the first and lowest layer of the atmosphere of the Earth, and contains 75% of the total mass of the planetary atmosphere, 99% of the total mass of water vapour and aerosols, and is where most weather phenomena occur. From ...

clouds. One predominant cloud type may be depicted for each of three étages, if known. The middle and high-étage types are depicted above the sky cover circle of the station model, while the main low-étage cloud type is indicated below the circle. Since the station model has limited room, it makes no special provision for vertical or multi-level clouds that can occupy more than one étage at a particular time. Consequently, cloud genera with significant vertical development may be coded and plotted as low or middle depending on the altitude at which they normally form.

Cumulus Cumulus clouds are clouds which have flat bases and are often described as "puffy", "cotton-like" or "fluffy" in appearance. Their name derives from the Latin ''cumulo-'', meaning ''heap'' or ''pile''. Cumulus clouds are low-level clouds, gener ...

and

cumulonimbus Cumulonimbus (from Latin ''cumulus'', "heaped" and ''nimbus'', "rainstorm") is a dense, towering vertical cloud, typically forming from water vapor condensing in the lower troposphere that builds upward carried by powerful Buoyancy, buoyant air ...

usually form in the low étage of the troposphere and achieve vertical extent by growing upward into the middle or high étage. Conversely,

nimbostratus A nimbostratus cloud is a multi-level, amorphous, nearly uniform and often dark grey cloud that usually produces continuous rain, snow or sleet but no lightning or thunder. Although the

SYNOP SYNOP (surface synoptic observations) is a numerical code (called FM-12 by WMO) used for reporting weather observations made by manned and automated weather stations. SYNOP reports are typically sent every six hours by Deutscher Wetterdienst on ...

code has no separate formal group classification for vertical or multi-level clouds, the observer procedure for selecting numerical codes is designed to give high reporting priority to those genera or species that show significant vertical development. The symbols used for clouds emulate the cloud shape.

Cirrus Cirrus may refer to: Science *Cirrus (biology), any of various thin, thread-like structures on the body of an animal *Cirrus (botany), a tendril *Infrared cirrus, in astronomy, filamentary structures seen in infrared light *Cirrus cloud, a type ...

is indicated by a couple hooks, cumulus are indicated by a mound shape, with cumulonimbus indicated with an upside down trapezoid on top of the cumulus symbol to indicate its anvil. When there is more than one cloud type present per level, the cloud type with the highest priority is included. Knowing the cloud type at various locations can help determine whether or not a weather front has passed by a particular location. A low deck of

stratus Stratus may refer to: Weather *Stratus cloud, a cloud type **Nimbostratus cloud, a cloud type **Stratocumulus cloud, a cloud type **Altostratus cloud, a cloud type **Altostratus undulatus cloud, a cloud type **Cirrostratus cloud, a cloud type Mus ...

could indicate a station is still north of a warm front, while thunderstorms can indicate the approach of a

squall line A squall line, or more accurately a quasi-linear convective system (QLCS), is a line of thunderstorms, often forming along or ahead of a cold front. In the early 20th century, the term was used as a synonym for cold front (which often are accompa ...

or cold front. Image:Lowcloudsymbols.gif, Low étage (Sc,St) and upward-growing vertical (Cu, Cb) Image:Midcloudcymbols.gif, Middle étage (Ac,As) and downward-growing vertical (Ns) Image:Highcloudsymbols.gif, High étage (Ci,Cc,Cs)

Present weather and visibility

To the left of the cloud shape in the center of the station model is the symbol depicting present weather. The present weather symbol depicts the current weather which normally is obstructing the

visibility The visibility is the measure of the distance at which an object or light can be clearly discerned. In meteorology it depends on the transparency of the surrounding air and as such, it is unchanging no matter the ambient light level or time of ...

at the time of observation. The visibility itself is shown as a number, in

statute mile The mile, sometimes the international mile or statute mile to distinguish it from other miles, is a British imperial unit and United States customary unit of distance; both are based on the older English unit of length equal to 5,280 English ...

s in the United States and

meters The metre (British spelling) or meter (American spelling; see spelling differences) (from the French unit , from the Greek noun , "measure"), symbol m, is the primary unit of length in the International System of Units (SI), though its prefi ...

elsewhere, describing how far the observer can see at that time. This number is located to the left of the present weather symbol. For pilots, knowledge of the horizontal visibility helps determine if they are flying through

instrument meteorological conditions In aviation, instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) is a METAR, flight category that describes weather conditions that require pilots to fly primarily by reference to Flight instruments, instruments, and therefore under instrument flight rule ...

(IMC), such as foggy or smoky conditions, as well as areas of intense precipitation. Present weather depicted with the station model can include: *

Dust Dust is made of fine particles of solid matter. On Earth, it generally consists of particles in the atmosphere that come from various sources such as soil lifted by wind (an aeolian process), volcanic eruptions, and pollution. Dust in homes ...

Fog Fog is a visible aerosol consisting of tiny water droplets or ice crystals suspended in the air at or near the Earth's surface. Reprint from Fog can be considered a type of low-lying cloud usually resembling stratus, and is heavily influ ...

Haze Haze is traditionally an atmospheric phenomenon in which dust, smoke, and other dry particulates suspended in air obscure visibility and the clarity of the sky. The World Meteorological Organization manual of codes includes a classification ...

* Ocean spray * Precipitation *

Sand Sand is a granular material composed of finely divided mineral particles. Sand has various compositions but is defined by its grain size. Sand grains are smaller than gravel and coarser than silt. Sand can also refer to a textural class of s ...

Smoke Smoke is a suspension of airborne particulates and gases emitted when a material undergoes combustion or pyrolysis, together with the quantity of air that is entrained or otherwise mixed into the mass. It is commonly an unwanted by-product ...

Thunderstorm A thunderstorm, also known as an electrical storm or a lightning storm, is a storm characterized by the presence of lightning and its acoustic effect on the Earth's atmosphere, known as thunder. Relatively weak thunderstorms are someti ...

s *

Volcanic ash Volcanic ash consists of fragments of rock, mineral crystals, and volcanic glass, created during volcano, volcanic eruptions and measuring less than 2 mm (0.079 inches) in diameter. The term volcanic ash is also often loosely used t ...

Temperature and dew point

To left of center in the station model, the temperature and dew point are plotted. Within the United States on surface weather maps, they are still plotted in degrees

Fahrenheit The Fahrenheit scale () is a temperature scale based on one proposed in 1724 by the physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686–1736). It uses the degree Fahrenheit (symbol: °F) as the unit. Several accounts of how he originally defined his ...

. Otherwise, they will be in units of degrees

Celsius The degree Celsius is the unit of temperature on the Celsius scale (originally known as the centigrade scale outside Sweden), one of two temperature scales used in the International System of Units (SI), the other being the Kelvin scale. The ...

. This knowledge is important to meteorologists because when this data is plotted on a map, isotherms and isodrosotherms (lines of equal dew point) are easily analyzed, either by man or machine, which can help determine location of

weather front A weather front is a boundary separating air masses for which several characteristics differ, such as air density, wind, temperature, and humidity. Disturbed and unstable weather due to these differences often arises along the boundary. For in ...

Sea level pressure and height of pressure surface

On the top right corner of the model for a surface weather map is the pressure, showing the last two integer digits of the pressure in

millibar The bar is a metric unit of pressure, but not part of the International System of Units (SI). It is defined as exactly equal to 100,000 Pa (100 kPa), or slightly less than the current average atmospheric pressure on Earth at sea leve ...

s, or

hectopascal The pascal (symbol: Pa) is the unit of pressure in the International System of Units (SI), and is also used to quantify internal pressure, stress, Young's modulus, and ultimate tensile strength. The unit, named after Blaise Pascal, is defined a ...

s, along with the first decimal. For instance, if the pressure at a certain location is 999.7 hPa, the pressure portion of the station model will read 997. Although the first digit or two of the pressure is left off, other nearby stations give away whether the pressure starts with a 10 or a 9. Most of the time, choosing first digits that would lead to a value nearest to 1000 works out best. The plotting of this value within the station model allows for the analysis of isobars on weather maps. Within maps which plot data on constant pressure surfaces, the pressure is replaced with the height of the pressure surface.

Pressure tendency

Below the pressure will lie the pressure tendency figure, which indicates the pressure change over the past three hours. The number depicting the pressure change will usually have two digits and indicate the pressure change in 0.1 millibar increments. There are nine different figures which represent the pressure change. A slant angled up and right indicates a steady rise, while a downward slant to the lower right indicates a steady fall. Steady rises can indicate improving conditions and approaching high pressure, and normally occur in the wake of a cold front. Steady falls can indicate deteriorating conditions and an approaching low pressure area, with the largest falls occurring in advance of a surface

cyclone In meteorology, a cyclone () is a large air mass that rotates around a strong center of low atmospheric pressure, counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere as viewed from above (opposite to an anti ...

and its attendant warm front. The time of the day must be considered, as there are two natural rises per day (locally around 10 am and 10 pm) and two natural falls per day (locally around 4 am and 4 pm). These daily changes in pressure can mask the movement of pressure systems and fronts past a location. The lowest natural dip in the pressure, in a stagnant weather pattern, occurs around 4 pm while the highest natural peak in pressure occurs around 10 am. Once plotted on a map, the analysis of isallobars (lines of equal pressure change) can be plotted on a map, which can indicate the direction of motion of high and low pressures systems across the map domain.Dr P. M. Inness
Isobaric analysis and pressure tendency.
Dr. Giles Harrison. Retrieved on 2008-01-22. Pastweather

Past weather

Station models can have past weather plotted within them, which would be located just under the pressure tendency. They indicate the type of weather experienced during the past six hours. The weather types are limited to obstructions of visibility and precipitation. Animations may depict a time series of station model conditions which is most often used to show recent changes in weather conditions and are useful in nowcasting and

forecasting Forecasting is the process of making predictions based on past and present data. Later these can be compared (resolved) against what happens. For example, a company might estimate their revenue in the next year, then compare it against the actual ...

References

{{good article Synoptic meteorology and weather Weather prediction Aviation meteorology