Stabilizer Formalism
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The theory of
quantum error correction Quantum error correction (QEC) is used in quantum computing to protect quantum information from errors due to decoherence and other quantum noise. Quantum error correction is theorised as essential to achieve fault tolerant quantum computing that ...
plays a prominent role in the practical realization and engineering of
quantum computing Quantum computing is a type of computation whose operations can harness the phenomena of quantum mechanics, such as superposition, interference, and entanglement. Devices that perform quantum computations are known as quantum computers. Though ...
and quantum communication devices. The first quantum error-correcting codes are strikingly similar to classical block codes in their operation and performance. Quantum error-correcting codes restore a noisy, decohered quantum state to a pure quantum state. A stabilizer quantum error-correcting code appends ancilla qubits to qubits that we want to protect. A unitary encoding circuit rotates the global state into a subspace of a larger
Hilbert space In mathematics, Hilbert spaces (named after David Hilbert) allow generalizing the methods of linear algebra and calculus from (finite-dimensional) Euclidean vector spaces to spaces that may be infinite-dimensional. Hilbert spaces arise natural ...
. This highly entangled, encoded state corrects for local noisy errors. A quantum error-correcting code makes
quantum computation Quantum computing is a type of computation whose operations can harness the phenomena of quantum mechanics, such as superposition, interference, and entanglement. Devices that perform quantum computations are known as quantum computers. Though ...
and quantum communication practical by providing a way for a sender and receiver to simulate a noiseless qubit channel given a
noisy qubit channel In quantum information theory, a quantum channel is a communication channel which can transmit quantum information, as well as classical information. An example of quantum information is the state of a qubit. An example of classical information ...
whose noise conforms to a particular error model. The stabilizer theory of
quantum error correction Quantum error correction (QEC) is used in quantum computing to protect quantum information from errors due to decoherence and other quantum noise. Quantum error correction is theorised as essential to achieve fault tolerant quantum computing that ...
allows one to import some classical binary or quaternary codes for use as a quantum code. However, when importing the classical code, it must satisfy the dual-containing (or self-orthogonality) constraint. Researchers have found many examples of classical codes satisfying this constraint, but most classical codes do not. Nevertheless, it is still useful to import classical codes in this way (though, see how the entanglement-assisted stabilizer formalism overcomes this difficulty).


Mathematical background

The stabilizer formalism exploits elements of the Pauli group \Pi in formulating quantum error-correcting codes. The set \Pi=\left\ consists of the
Pauli operators In mathematical physics and mathematics, the Pauli matrices are a set of three complex matrices which are Hermitian, involutory and unitary. Usually indicated by the Greek letter sigma (), they are occasionally denoted by tau () when used ...
: : I\equiv \begin 1 & 0\\ 0 & 1 \end ,\ X\equiv \begin 0 & 1\\ 1 & 0 \end ,\ Y\equiv \begin 0 & -i\\ i & 0 \end ,\ Z\equiv \begin 1 & 0\\ 0 & -1 \end . The above operators act on a single qubit – a state represented by a vector in a two-dimensional
Hilbert space In mathematics, Hilbert spaces (named after David Hilbert) allow generalizing the methods of linear algebra and calculus from (finite-dimensional) Euclidean vector spaces to spaces that may be infinite-dimensional. Hilbert spaces arise natural ...
. Operators in \Pi have
eigenvalues In linear algebra, an eigenvector () or characteristic vector of a linear transformation is a nonzero vector that changes at most by a scalar factor when that linear transformation is applied to it. The corresponding eigenvalue, often denoted b ...
\pm1 and either commute or
anti-commute In mathematics, anticommutativity is a specific property of some non- commutative mathematical operations. Swapping the position of two arguments of an antisymmetric operation yields a result which is the ''inverse'' of the result with unswapped ...
. The set \Pi^ consists of n-fold tensor products of Pauli operators: : \Pi^=\left\ . Elements of \Pi^ act on a quantum register of n qubits. We occasionally omit tensor product symbols in what follows so that :A_\cdots A_\equiv A_\otimes\cdots\otimes A_. The n-fold Pauli group \Pi^ plays an important role for both the encoding circuit and the error-correction procedure of a quantum stabilizer code over n qubits.


Definition

Let us define an \left n,k\right stabilizer quantum error-correcting code to encode k logical qubits into n physical qubits. The rate of such a code is k/n. Its stabilizer \mathcal is an
abelian Abelian may refer to: Mathematics Group theory * Abelian group, a group in which the binary operation is commutative ** Category of abelian groups (Ab), has abelian groups as objects and group homomorphisms as morphisms * Metabelian group, a grou ...
subgroup of the n-fold Pauli group \Pi^. \mathcal does not contain the operator -I^. The simultaneous +1- eigenspace of the operators constitutes the ''codespace''. The codespace has dimension 2^ so that we can encode k qubits into it. The stabilizer \mathcal has a minimal
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in terms of n-k independent generators :\left\ . The generators are independent in the sense that none of them is a product of any other two (up to a global phase). The operators g_,\ldots,g_ function in the same way as a parity check matrix does for a classical linear block code.


Stabilizer error-correction conditions

One of the fundamental notions in quantum error correction theory is that it suffices to correct a discrete error set with
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in the Pauli group \Pi^. Suppose that the errors affecting an encoded quantum state are a subset \mathcal of the Pauli group \Pi^: :\mathcal\subset\Pi^. Because \mathcal and \mathcal are both subsets of \Pi^, an error E\in\mathcal that affects an encoded quantum state either commutes or
anticommute In mathematics, anticommutativity is a specific property of some non-commutative mathematical operations. Swapping the position of two arguments of an antisymmetric operation yields a result which is the ''inverse'' of the result with unswapped ...
s with any particular element g in \mathcal. The error E is correctable if it anticommutes with an element g in \mathcal. An anticommuting error E is detectable by measuring each element g in \mathcal and computing a syndrome \mathbf identifying E. The syndrome is a binary vector \mathbf with length n-k whose elements identify whether the error E commutes or anticommutes with each g\in\mathcal. An error E that commutes with every element g in \mathcal is correctable if and only if it is in \mathcal. It corrupts the encoded state if it commutes with every element of \mathcal but does not lie in \mathcal . So we compactly summarize the stabilizer error-correcting conditions: a stabilizer code can correct any errors E_,E_ in \mathcal if :E_^E_\notin\mathcal\left( \mathcal\right) or :E_^E_\in\mathcal where \mathcal\left( \mathcal \right) is the centralizer of \mathcal (i.e., the subgroup of elements that commute with all members of \mathcal, also known as the commutant).


Relation between Pauli group and binary vectors

A simple but useful mapping exists between elements of \Pi and the binary vector space \left( \mathbb_\right) ^. This mapping gives a simplification of quantum error correction theory. It represents quantum codes with binary vectors and
binary operation In mathematics, a binary operation or dyadic operation is a rule for combining two elements (called operands) to produce another element. More formally, a binary operation is an operation of arity two. More specifically, an internal binary op ...
s rather than with Pauli operators and matrix operations respectively. We first give the mapping for the one-qubit case. Suppose \left A\right is a set of
equivalence class In mathematics, when the elements of some set S have a notion of equivalence (formalized as an equivalence relation), then one may naturally split the set S into equivalence classes. These equivalence classes are constructed so that elements a ...
es of an
operator Operator may refer to: Mathematics * A symbol indicating a mathematical operation * Logical operator or logical connective in mathematical logic * Operator (mathematics), mapping that acts on elements of a space to produce elements of another ...
A that have the same phase: : \left A\right =\left\ . Let \left \Pi\right be the set of phase-free Pauli operators where \left \Pi\right =\left\ . Define the map N:\left( \mathbb_\right) ^\rightarrow\Pi as : 00 \to I, \,\, 01 \to X, \,\, 11 \to Y, \,\, 10 \to Z Suppose u,v\in\left( \mathbb_\right) ^. Let us employ the shorthand u=\left( z, x\right) and v=\left( z^, x^\right) where z, x, z^, x^\in\mathbb_. For example, suppose u=\left( 0, 1\right) . Then N\left( u\right) =X. The map N induces an isomorphism \left N\right :\left( \mathbb _\right) ^\rightarrow\left \Pi\right because addition of vectors in \left( \mathbb_\right) ^ is equivalent to multiplication of Pauli operators up to a global phase: : \left N\left( u+v\right) \right =\left N\left( u\right) \right\left N\left( v\right) \right . Let \odot denote the
symplectic product In mathematics, a symplectic vector space is a vector space ''V'' over a field ''F'' (for example the real numbers R) equipped with a symplectic bilinear form. A symplectic bilinear form is a mapping that is ; Bilinear: Linear in each argument s ...
between two elements u,v\in\left( \mathbb_\right) ^: : u\odot v\equiv zx^-xz^. The symplectic product \odot gives the
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relations of elements of \Pi: : N\left( u\right) N\left( v\right) =\left( -1\right) ^N\left( v\right) N\left( u\right) . The symplectic product and the mapping N thus give a useful way to phrase Pauli relations in terms of binary algebra. The extension of the above definitions and mapping N to multiple qubits is straightforward. Let \mathbf=A_\otimes\cdots\otimes A_ denote an arbitrary element of \Pi^. We can similarly define the phase-free n-qubit Pauli group \left \Pi^\right =\left\ where : \left \mathbf\right =\left\ . The group operation \ast for the above equivalence class is as follows: : \left \mathbf\right \ast\left \mathbf\right \equiv\left A_\right \ast\left B_\right \otimes\cdots\otimes\left A_\right \ast\left B_\right =\left A_B_\right \otimes\cdots\otimes\left A_B_\right=\left \mathbf\right . The equivalence class \left \Pi^\right forms a commutative group under operation \ast. Consider the 2n-dimensional vector space : \left( \mathbb_\right) ^=\left\ . It forms the commutative group (\left( \mathbb_\right) ^,+) with operation + defined as binary vector addition. We employ the notation \mathbf=\left( \mathbf, \mathbf\right) ,\mathbf=\left( \mathbf^, \mathbf^\right) to represent any vectors \mathbf\in\left( \mathbb_\right) ^ respectively. Each vector \mathbf and \mathbf has elements \left( z_,\ldots ,z_\right) and \left( x_,\ldots,x_\right) respectively with similar representations for \mathbf^ and \mathbf^. The ''symplectic product'' \odot of \mathbf and \mathbf is : \mathbf\odot\mathbf\sum_^z_x_^-x_ z_^, or : \mathbf\odot\mathbf\sum_^u_\odot v_, where u_=\left( z_, x_\right) and v_=\left( z_^, x_^\right) . Let us define a map \mathbf:\left( \mathbb_\right) ^\rightarrow\Pi^ as follows: : \mathbf\left( \mathbf\right) \equiv N\left( u_\right) \otimes\cdots\otimes N\left( u_\right) . Let : \mathbf\left( \mathbf\right) \equiv X^\otimes\cdots\otimes X^, \,\,\,\,\,\,\, \mathbf\left( \mathbf\right) \equiv Z^\otimes\cdots\otimes Z^, so that \mathbf\left( \mathbf\right) and \mathbf\left( \mathbf\right) \mathbf\left( \mathbf\right) belong to the same
equivalence class In mathematics, when the elements of some set S have a notion of equivalence (formalized as an equivalence relation), then one may naturally split the set S into equivalence classes. These equivalence classes are constructed so that elements a ...
: : \left \mathbf\left( \mathbf\right) \right =\left \mathbf \left( \mathbf\right) \mathbf\left( \mathbf\right) \right . The map \left \mathbf\right :\left( \mathbb_\right) ^\rightarrow\left \Pi^\right is an isomorphism for the same reason given as in the previous case: : \left \mathbf\left( \mathbf\right) \right =\left \mathbf\left( \mathbf\right) \right \left \mathbf\left( \mathbf\right) \right , where \mathbf\in\left( \mathbb_\right) ^. The
symplectic product In mathematics, a symplectic vector space is a vector space ''V'' over a field ''F'' (for example the real numbers R) equipped with a symplectic bilinear form. A symplectic bilinear form is a mapping that is ; Bilinear: Linear in each argument s ...
captures the commutation relations of any operators \mathbf\left( \mathbf\right) and \mathbf\left( \mathbf\right) : : \mathbf\left( \mathbf\right) =\left( -1\right) ^\mathbf\left( \mathbf\right) \mathbf\left( \mathbf\right) . The above binary representation and symplectic algebra are useful in making the relation between classical linear
error correction In information theory and coding theory with applications in computer science and telecommunication, error detection and correction (EDAC) or error control are techniques that enable reliable delivery of digital data over unreliable communica ...
and
quantum error correction Quantum error correction (QEC) is used in quantum computing to protect quantum information from errors due to decoherence and other quantum noise. Quantum error correction is theorised as essential to achieve fault tolerant quantum computing that ...
more explicit. By comparing quantum error correcting codes in this language to symplectic vector spaces, we can see the following. A symplectic subspace corresponds to a
direct sum The direct sum is an operation between structures in abstract algebra, a branch of mathematics. It is defined differently, but analogously, for different kinds of structures. To see how the direct sum is used in abstract algebra, consider a more ...
of Pauli algebras (i.e., encoded qubits), while an
isotropic Isotropy is uniformity in all orientations; it is derived . Precise definitions depend on the subject area. Exceptions, or inequalities, are frequently indicated by the prefix ' or ', hence ''anisotropy''. ''Anisotropy'' is also used to describe ...
subspace corresponds to a set of stabilizers.


Example of a stabilizer code

An example of a stabilizer code is the five qubit \left 5,1,3\right stabilizer code. It encodes k=1 logical qubit into n=5 physical qubits and protects against an arbitrary single-qubit error. It has code distance d=3. Its stabilizer consists of n-k=4 Pauli operators: : \begin g_ & = & X & Z & Z & X & I\\ g_ & = & I & X & Z & Z & X\\ g_ & = & X & I & X & Z & Z\\ g_ & = & Z & X & I & X & Z \end The above operators commute. Therefore, the codespace is the simultaneous +1-eigenspace of the above operators. Suppose a single-qubit error occurs on the encoded quantum register. A single-qubit error is in the set \left\ where A_ denotes a Pauli error on qubit i. It is straightforward to verify that any arbitrary single-qubit error has a unique syndrome. The receiver corrects any single-qubit error by identifying the syndrome via a parity measurement and applying a corrective operation.


References

* D. Gottesman, "Stabilizer codes and quantum error correction," quant-ph/9705052, Caltech Ph.D. thesis. https://arxiv.org/abs/quant-ph/9705052 * * * * A. Calderbank, E. Rains, P. Shor, and N. Sloane, “Quantum error correction via codes over GF(4),” IEEE Trans. Inf. Theory, vol. 44, pp. 1369–1387, 1998. Available at https://arxiv.org/abs/quant-ph/9608006 {{Quantum computing Linear algebra Quantum computing