The St Albans Psalter, also known as the Albani Psalter or the Psalter of Christina of Markyate, is an English illuminated manuscript, one of several psalters known to have been created at or for St Albans Abbey in the 12th century.Rodney M. Thomson, ''Manuscripts from St. Albans Abbey, 1066-1235'', 2 vols (Woodbridge, published for the University of Tasmania by D. S. Brewer, 1982). It is widely considered to be one of the most important examples of English Romanesque book production; it is of almost unprecedented lavishness of decoration, with over forty full-page miniatures, and contains a number of iconographic innovations that would endure throughout the Middle Ages. It also contains the earliest surviving example of French literature, the ''Chanson de St Alexis'' or Vie de St Alexis, and it was probably commissioned by an identifiable man and owned by an identifiable woman. Since the early 19th century it has been owned by the church of St. Godehard in

Hildesheim Hildesheim (; nds, Hilmessen, Hilmssen; la, Hildesia) is a city in Lower Saxony, Germany with 101,693 inhabitants. It is in the district of Hildesheim, about southeast of Hanover on the banks of the Innerste River, a small tributary of the L ...

Lower Saxony Lower Saxony (german: Niedersachsen ; nds, Neddersassen; stq, Läichsaksen) is a German state (') in northwestern Germany. It is the second-largest state by land area, with , and fourth-largest in population (8 million in 2021) among the 16 ...

in northwestern Germany, but is now stored and administered at the nearby Dombibliothek (Cathedral Library) in

Hildesheim Cathedral Hildesheim Cathedral (German: '), officially the Cathedral of the Assumption of Mary (German: ''Hohe Domkirche St. Mariä Himmelfahrt'') or simply St. Mary's Cathedral (German: ''Mariendom''), is a medieval Roman Catholic cathedral in the city cent ...

. A single leaf from the manuscript is at the Schnütgen Museum,

Cologne Cologne ( ; german: Köln ; ksh, Kölle ) is the largest city of the German western state of North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW) and the fourth-most populous city of Germany with 1.1 million inhabitants in the city proper and 3.6 millio ...

; one further leaf, and one further cutting, are missing from the volume, their whereabouts unknown.

The manuscript as it survives in Hildesheim has 209

folios The term "folio" (), has three interconnected but distinct meanings in the world of books and printing: first, it is a term for a common method of arranging sheets of paper into book form, folding the sheet only once, and a term for a book ma ...

(i.e. 418 pages) of

vellum Vellum is prepared animal skin or membrane, typically used as writing material. Parchment is another term for this material, from which vellum is sometimes distinguished, when it is made from calfskin, as opposed to that made from other anima ...

, which are numbered by a modern hand in Arabic numerals in the top right corner of the rectos, and there is an additional numbering of the miniatures at the bottom of their pages. A full page measures 27.6 x 18.4 cm. There are many signs that the pages have been trimmed down from their original size. The binding is of leather, and medieval, although it was restored in modern times, perhaps the 1930s. The manuscript is composed of five physically separable parts: * I. (Quire 1; pp. 1–16
Calendar and computistical material
* II. (Quires 2-4; pp. 17–56) Series o
full-page miniatures
* III. (Quire 5; pp. 57–72) A quire containing: ** a miniature and text of the
Chanson de St Alexis
', ** Gregory the Great'
defence of the use of images
in Latin and French translation, *
three miniatures
depicting the Gospel Emmaus story, **
drawing
of two battling knights, with accompanying text, and ** a Beatus initial, with accompanying text * IV. (Quires 6-23; pp. 73–414
PsalmsCanticlesLitany
an
Collects
* V. (part of Quire 23; pp. 415–418) A bifolium with two full-page miniatures (pp. 416–417) depicting th
Martyrdom of St Alban
an
King David with musicians

Date and origin

Scholarly opinion differs on many of the details, but there is general agreement that the psalter was created at St Albans Abbey. The first editor

Adolph Goldschmidt Adolph Goldschmidt (15 January 1863 – 5 January 1944) was a Jewish German art historian. He taught at University of Berlin from 1892 to 1903, and University of Halle from 1904 to 1912. Biography He was born on 15 January 1863 in Hamburg, Ge ...

considered Roger († ante 1118), hermit and monk of St Albans, to be the scribe of the psalms. The hermit Roger, whose death anniversary (12 September) is recorded in the calendar, is likely to be identical with Roger d'Aubigny, a brother of abbot Richard d'Aubigny (1087-1119) and father of William d'Aubigny (Pincerna) and

Nigel d'Aubigny Nigel d'Aubigny (''Neel d'Aubigny'' or ''Nigel de Albini'', died 1129), was a Norman Lord and English baron who was the son of Roger d'Aubigny and Amice or Avice de Mowbray. His paternal uncle William was lord of Aubigny, while his father was an ...

. According to subsequent scholars the St Albans Psalter came into being only during the abbacy (1119-1146) of

Geoffrey de Gorham Geoffrey de Gorham (Goreham, Gorron), sometimes called Geoffrey of Dunstable or of Le Mans (died at St Albans, 26 February 1146), was a Norman scholar who became Abbot of St Albans Abbey, 1119 to 1146.Christina of Markyate Christina of Markyate was born with the name Theodora in Huntingdon, England, about 1096–1098 and died about 1155. She was an anchoress, who came from a wealthy English family trying to accommodate with the Normans at that time. She later beca ...

(c. 1098-c. 1155-1166), anchoress and later prioress of

Markyate Markyate is a village and civil parish in north-west Hertfordshire, close to the border with Bedfordshire and Buckinghamshire. Geography The name of the village has had several former variants, including ''Markyate Street'', ''Market Street'' and ...

, or at least associated with her at some point after her death.Adolph Goldschmidt, ''Der Albanipsalter in Hildesheim und seine Beziehung zur symbolischen Kirchensculptur des XII. Jahrhunderts'' (Berlin, G. Siemens, 1895).Otto Pächt, C. R. Dodwell, and Francis Wormald, ''The St. Albans Psalter (Albani Psalter)'', Studies of the Warburg Institute, 25 (London, Warburg Institute, 1960).Jane Geddes, ''The St Albans Psalter: A Book for Christina of Markyate'' (London, British Library, 2005).''The St Albans Psalter (Albani Psalter)'' acsimile commentary by Jochen Bepler, Peter Kidd, and Jane Geddes(Simbach am Inn, 2008). If she did indeed own it, it is not clear whether the manuscript was intended for her from the beginning, whether it was adapted for her while it was being made, or whether it became hers after its completion; recent research remains divided on this issue. Additions were made to the manuscript at various times until after her death, which is recorded in the calendar. Little is known about the origins of the St. Albans monastery; however, tradition claims that the monastery was founded in approximately 793 by King Offa of Mercia. When it was established, the abbey housed both men and women and followed the rule of

Saint Benedict Benedict of Nursia ( la, Benedictus Nursiae; it, Benedetto da Norcia; 2 March AD 480 – 21 March AD 548) was an Italian Christian monk, writer, and theologian who is venerated in the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Orient ...

. The abbey is named after St. Alban, who is the first recorded Christian martyr dating back to the third or fourth century. Alban became well known for housing a Christian priest who was fleeing from persecutors in

Roman Britain Roman Britain was the period in classical antiquity when large parts of the island of Great Britain were under occupation by the Roman Empire. The occupation lasted from AD 43 to AD 410. During that time, the territory conquered wa ...

. When the Prince ordered soldiers to search Alban’s house, Alban dressed as the priest to save the man whom he was protecting. This action, in addition to refusing to comply with pagan beliefs, ultimately led to Alban’s beheading, hence becoming a martyr in the Christian community. The abbey remained relatively peaceful from its inception in 793 up until the Norman invasion of England in 1066. Duke William II of Normandy invaded England because he believed he had a claim to the English throne due to his familial relationship with the Anglo-Saxon King Edward the Confessor. Ultimately, William was successful in his conquest and secured the English throne soon after the year 1072. This sudden rise to power had a range of socio-political, economic, social, and religious consequences for England. For example, and most notably, William replaced all Anglo-Saxon bishops, save Wulfstan of Dorchester, with Norman bishops. In addition, he increased the number of church councils and created laws against simony and clerical marriage. Furthermore, he replaced Anglo-Saxon abbots with Norman ones. Combined, these actions enhanced the monastic life in England. For instance, the first Norman abbot arrived at the St. Albans monastery in 1077. While an abbot at St. Albans, he acquired new property for the monastery, helped to construct the new Romanesque abbey church, and established a scriptorium for the creation of manuscripts for the community’s use. In this way, the Norman conquest indirectly enabled the St. Albans Psalter. In fact, much of the artwork in the psalter itself marks a departure from Anglo-Saxon artistic styles and instead represents the Romanesque style of art. Romanesque style of art began around 1000 A.D. in Europe. Its primary modes of appearance were architectural sculpture, stained glass, manuscript illuminations, and wall paintings. 0Despite occasional Anglo-Saxon features in its illumination cycle, the St. Albans Psalter is considered to be the paradigm of Romanesque-style artwork. The tightly controlled thick-bordered frames, the symmetry of some illuminations, the interdependent relationship between size and level of importance, and the curved forms of figures’ bodies are all characteristic of both the St. Albans Psalter and Romanesque-style artwork. The psalter is believed to be commissioned by abbot Geoffrey of St. Albans and anchoress

Christina of Markyate Christina of Markyate was born with the name Theodora in Huntingdon, England, about 1096–1098 and died about 1155. She was an anchoress, who came from a wealthy English family trying to accommodate with the Normans at that time. She later beca ...

. According to ''The Life of Christina of Markyate,'' Christina and abbot Geoffrey were close, platonic friends. The relationship was also mutually beneficial, for "while eoffreybusied himself in supplying the maiden’s needs, hristinastrove to enrich the man in virtue" (68). 1Christina would advise abbot Geoffrey on his ecclesiastical assignments and had even provided undergarments for him on his journey to Rome. 2Their relationship broke away from the traditional one between a male cleric and an anchoress because she was in the role of an advisor. So much is their relationship a point of peculiarity that scholars have attempted to argue that Christina’s vita was commissioned by Geoffrey in order to elevate the status of St. Albans as a holy site and for Christina of Markyate. Geoffrey entered the St. Albans community as a monk from France in restitution for borrowing vestments from St. Albans as props for a play he was producing. 3During his time at St. Albans, he rose through the ranks and made new contributions to the liturgy. Christina of Markyate, on the other hand, was the daughter of a wealthy Anglo-Saxon family who attempted to force her into marriage by way of deceit, trickery and scandal. Hence, she lived a substantial portion of her life as a recluse and was even protected by a hermit for a brief time until she entered the community of St. Albans. 4The historical considerations of abbot Geoffrey and anchoress Christina Markyate are important to address because, as previously mentioned, an on-going debate exists about whether or not the St. Albans Psalter was commissioned for Christina. ---- "The Medieval Abbey." ''The Cathedral and Abbey Church of Saint Alban.'' Last Modified 2017. Accessed 9 December 2018. http://www.stalbancathedral.org/history/monastic-site. Ibid., "The Medieval Abbey." "Story of St. Alban." ''The Cathedral and Abbey Church of Saint Alban.'' Last Modified 2017. Accessed 9 December 2018. http://www.stalbancathedral.org/history/story-of-st-alban Ibid., "Story of St. Alban." "The Norman Invasion of England." ''Penfield Central School District.'' Accessed 9 December 2018. http://www.penfield.edu/webpages/jgiotto/onlinetextbook.cfm?subpage=1505054. "Norman Conquest." ''Encyclopædia Britannica.'' Last Modified 2018. Accessed 9 December 2018. http://www.britannica.com/event/Norman-Conquest. Ibid., "Norman Conquest." Ibid., "Norman Conquest." Kristen M. Collins, Nancy Turner, and Peter Kidd, ''The St. Albans Psalter Painting and Prayer in Medieval England'' (J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles, 2013), 9. 0Conrad Rudolph, ''A Companion to Medieval Art: Romanesque and Gothic in Northern Europe'', (New Jersey, Wiley-Blackwell, 2009), 106. 1Trans. C.H. Talbot, ''The Life of Christina of Markyate,'' (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2010), 68. 2Ibid., ''The St. Albans Psalter Painting,'' 17. 3Ibid., ''The St. Albans Psalter Painting,'' 16. 4Ibid., ''The St. Albans Psalter Painting,'' 17. Kindermord von Bethlehem

Details of production

Within the accepted c.1120-c.1145 date-range, there is no firm scholarly consensus about the relative and absolute chronology of the creation of the five constituent parts. There are generally thought to be the work of at least six

scribes A scribe is a person who serves as a professional copyist, especially one who made copies of manuscripts before the invention of automatic printing. The profession of the scribe, previously widespread across cultures, lost most of its promin ...

and four artists in the volume, but there is disagreement about their identity, and who was responsible for what. Published opinions until the 1960s were mostly that the manuscript was made before c.1125, or even before c.1123; this was modified in the 1980s to the decade c.1120-1130; while in the 1990s and 2000s several scholars have proposed dates in the 1130s. Attributions dating the manuscript to after 1145, or after 1155, have not gained general acceptance. The main units of text are: * The main part of the calendar and computistical material (pp. 2–15) * Death anniversary of the hermit Roger, added to the calendar (12 September p. 11) * Two further feasts, added to the calendar * A large number of feasts and

obiit Obiits were an annual endowed service commemorating the dead. Feast days for patron saints were often reserved for endowed masses associated with the ''obiit'', sometimes in a chantry. Background The practice has its origin in the recitation of t ...

s, added to the calendar * The outer bifolium of the first quire of the Psalms (pp. 73–74, 91-92) * The rest of the Psalms,

Litany Litany, in Christian worship and some forms of Judaic worship, is a form of prayer used in services and processions, and consisting of a number of petitions. The word comes through Latin '' litania'' from Ancient Greek λιτανεία (''lit ...

, etc. * The verse written on the pasted-in initial to Psalm 105 (p. 285) * The

rubrics A rubric is a word or section of text that is traditionally written or printed in red ink for emphasis. The word derives from the la, rubrica, meaning red ochre or red chalk, and originates in Medieval illuminated manuscripts from the 13th cen ...

added in or next to most

historiated initial A historiated initial is an initial, an enlarged letter at the beginning of a paragraph or other section of text, that contains a picture. Strictly speaking, a historiated initial depicts an identifiable figure or a specific scene, while an in ...

s * The texts of the quire containing the ''Chanson de St Alexis'' (pp. 57–72) The last three listed are often said to have been written by the same scribe, identified by some as Abbot Geoffrey himself, giving a total of seven scribes. In addition, another 12th-century scribe corrected the text of the Psalms. The main units of decoration are: * The calendar, with Labours of the Months in roundels, and the signs of the zodiac * The full-page fully painted prefatory miniatures containing the Life of Christ in thirty-seven miniatures, and one of St Martin, preceded by two of

Adam and Eve Adam and Eve, according to the creation myth of the Abrahamic religions, were the first man and woman. They are central to the belief that humanity is in essence a single family, with everyone descended from a single pair of original ancestors. ...

, and followed by one of King

David David (; , "beloved one") (traditional spelling), , ''Dāwūd''; grc-koi, Δαυΐδ, Dauíd; la, Davidus, David; gez , ዳዊት, ''Dawit''; xcl, Դաւիթ, ''Dawitʿ''; cu, Давíдъ, ''Davidŭ''; possibly meaning "beloved one". w ...

* A 'diptych' of two full-page miniatures depicting the Martyrdom of St Alban, and King David with musicians * The Alexis quire, including the

Psalm 1 Psalm 1 is the first psalm of the Book of Psalms, beginning in the English King James Version: "Blessed is the man", and forming "an appropriate prologue" to the whole collection.Kirkpatrick, A. F. (1906)Cambridge Bible for Schools and Collegeson ...

initial * The pasted-in Psalm 105 initial * All the other

s The prefatory miniatures are usually said to be by the artist of the Alexis quire, the so-called Alexis Master The majority of the historiated initials are usually said to have been painted by two artists, one of whom was the artist of the calendar and the final 'diptych'.

Narrative cycle

The scenes shown are:Aberdeen website, "Understanding the Miniatures"
/ref> *P17, Fall, Genesis 3:1-6 *P18, Expulsion, Genesis 4:21-24 *P19,

Annunciation to Mary The Annunciation (from Latin '), also referred to as the Annunciation to the Blessed Virgin Mary, the Annunciation of Our Lady, or the Annunciation of the Lord, is the Christian celebration of the biblical tale of the announcement by the ange ...

, Luke 1:28-35 *P20, Visitation, Luke 1:39-56 *P21,

Nativity of Jesus in art The Nativity of Jesus has been a major subject of Christian art since the 4th century. The artistic depictions of the ''Nativity'' or birth of Jesus, celebrated at Christmas, are based on the narratives in the Bible, in the Gospels of Matthew a ...

, Luke 2:7 *P22, Annunciation to Shepherds, Luke 2:8-14 *P23, Magi before Herod, Matthew 2: 1-6 *P24, Journey of Magi, Matthew 2:9 *P25,

Adoration of the Magi The Adoration of the Magi or Adoration of the Kings is the name traditionally given to the subject in the Nativity of Jesus in art in which the three Magi, represented as kings, especially in the West, having found Jesus by following a star, ...

, Matthew 2:11 *P26, Dream of Magi Matthew 2:12 *P27, Return of Magi Matthew 2:12 *P28

Presentation of Jesus The Presentation of Jesus at the Temple (or ''in the temple'') is an early episode in the life of Jesus Christ, describing his presentation at the Temple in Jerusalem, that is celebrated by many churches 40 days after Christmas on Candlemas, o ...

at Temple, Luke 2:22-28 *P29,

Flight to Egypt The flight into Egypt is a story recounted in the Gospel of Matthew ( Matthew 2:13– 23) and in New Testament apocrypha. Soon after the visit by the Magi, an angel appeared to Joseph in a dream telling him to flee to Egypt with Mary and the i ...

, Matthew 2:14 *P30 Massacre of the Innocents, Matthew 2: 16-18 *P31, Return from Egypt, Matthew 2:20-21 *P32,

Baptism of Christ The baptism of Jesus by John the Baptist is a major event in the life of Jesus which is described in the three synoptic Gospels of the New Testament (Matthew, Mark and Luke). It is considered to have taken place at Al-Maghtas (also called Beth ...

, Luke 3:22; Matthew 3:13-17; Mark 1:9-11 *P33,

Temptation of Christ The temptation of Christ is a biblical narrative detailed in the gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke. After being baptized by John the Baptist, Jesus was tempted by the devil after 40 days and nights of fasting in the Judaean Desert. At the ti ...

: 1st Temptation, Luke 4:3-4; Matthew 4:3-4 *P34, 2nd Temptation, Luke 4:5-8; Matthew 4:5-7 *P35, 3rd Temptation, Luke 4:9-12; Matthew 4:8-12 *P36, Christ in the house of Simon the Pharisee, (Mary Magdalen washing feet), Luke 7:36-50 *P37, Entry to Jerusalem, John 12:13; Luke 19:35-36 *P38, Washing of feet, John 13:8-9 *P39,

Agony in the Garden The Agony in the Garden of Gethsemane is an episode in the life of Jesus. After the Last Supper, Jesus enters a garden where he experiences great anguish and prays to be delivered from his impending death on the cross ("Take this cup from me") ...

of Gethsemane, Christ with angel and chalice, Luke 22:39-45; Mark 14:32-34 *P40, Gethsemane, Christ and sleeping apostles, Mark 14:37-42 *P41, Last Supper, warning of Peter’s betrayal, sop to Judas, John 13:21-27 *P42,

Betrayal of Christ The kiss of Judas, also known as the Betrayal of Christ, is the act with which Judas identified Jesus to the multitude with swords and clubs who had come from the chief priests and elders of the people to arrest him, according to the Synoptic ...

, Matthew 26:47-52; Mark 14:43-48 *P43, Mocking, Mark 14:65; Luke 22:64; Mark 15:17-20; Matthew 27:28-29 *P44,

Flagellation of Christ The Flagellation of Christ, sometimes known as Christ at the Column or the Scourging at the Pillar, is a scene from the Passion of Christ very frequently shown in Christian art, in cycles of the Passion or the larger subject of the '' Life of C ...

, John 19:1; Luke 23:16 *P45,

Pontius Pilate Pontius Pilate (; grc-gre, Πόντιος Πιλᾶτος, ) was the fifth governor of the Roman province of Judaea, serving under Emperor Tiberius from 26/27 to 36/37 AD. He is best known for being the official who presided over the trial of ...

washes hands, Matthew 27:24-25 *P46,

Christ carrying the Cross Christ Carrying the Cross on his way to his crucifixion is an episode included in the Gospel of John, and a very common subject in art, especially in the fourteen Stations of the Cross, sets of which are now found in almost all Roman Catholi ...

, Matthew 27:31; John 19:17 *P47,

Descent from the Cross The Descent from the Cross ( el, Ἀποκαθήλωσις, ''Apokathelosis''), or Deposition of Christ, is the scene, as depicted in art, from the Gospels' accounts of Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus taking Christ down from the cross after hi ...

, Matthew 27:57-59; Mark 15:43-46; Luke 23:50-53 *P48,

Entombment of Christ The burial of Jesus refers to the entombment of the body of Jesus after crucifixion, before the eve of the sabbath described in the New Testament. According to the canonical gospel narratives, he was placed in a tomb by a councillor of the san ...

, Matthew 27:30; Mark 15:46; Luke 23:53; John 19:38-40 *P49,

Harrowing of Hell In Christian theology, the Harrowing of Hell ( la, Descensus Christi ad Inferos, "the descent of Christ into Hell" or Hades) is an Old English and Middle English term referring to the period of time between the Crucifixion of Jesus and his re ...

Gospel of Nicodemus Gospel originally meant the Christian message ("the gospel"), but in the 2nd century it came to be used also for the books in which the message was set out. In this sense a gospel can be defined as a loose-knit, episodic narrative of the words an ...

*P50, Three Women at sepulchre, Matthew 28: 1-7; Mark 16: 1-7; Luke 24:1-10 *P51, Mary Magdalen announces resurrection to apostles, John 20:18; Mark 16:9-10 *P52, Christ appears to the Apostles, and Incredulity of Thomas, John 20:24-28. Luke 24:33-43; Mark 16:14 *P53,

St Martin of Tours Martin of Tours ( la, Sanctus Martinus Turonensis; 316/336 – 8 November 397), also known as Martin the Merciful, was the third bishop of Tours. He has become one of the most familiar and recognizable Christian saints in France, heralded as the ...

: dividing cloak and vision. Matthew 25:35 implied *P54, Ascension, Acts 1:9-11 *P55, Pentecost, Acts 2:1-3 *P56, King David as Musician *PP 69–71 Three scenes of the

Supper at Emmaus According to the Gospel of Luke, the road to Emmaus appearance is one of the early post-resurrection appearances of Jesus after his crucifixion and the discovery of the empty tomb. Both the meeting on the road to Emmaus and the subsequent suppe ...

, placed out of sequence.

References

External links

* The entire manuscript (except flyleaves and binding) is available online with transcription, translation, commentary, interpretative essays, bibliography, etc., at
Aberdeen University
but this website has not been updated to reflect numerous significant advances in scholarship since 2003. * More recent bibliography, and various related resources including
map
showing the places mentioned in the ''Life of Christina of Markyate'', are on a
independent website

Contents

Date and origin

Details of production

Narrative cycle

References

External links

Further reading