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mathematics Mathematics is an area of knowledge that includes the topics of numbers, formulas and related structures, shapes and the spaces in which they are contained, and quantities and their changes. These topics are represented in modern mathematics ...
,
physics Physics is the natural science that studies matter, its fundamental constituents, its motion and behavior through space and time, and the related entities of energy and force. "Physical science is that department of knowledge which r ...
, and
engineering Engineering is the use of scientific method, scientific principles to design and build machines, structures, and other items, including bridges, tunnels, roads, vehicles, and buildings. The discipline of engineering encompasses a broad rang ...
, spatial frequency is a characteristic of any structure that is periodic across position in
space Space is the boundless three-dimensional extent in which objects and events have relative position and direction. In classical physics, physical space is often conceived in three linear dimensions, although modern physicists usually consider ...
. The spatial frequency is a measure of how often sinusoidal components (as determined by the
Fourier transform A Fourier transform (FT) is a mathematical transform that decomposes functions into frequency components, which are represented by the output of the transform as a function of frequency. Most commonly functions of time or space are transformed, ...
) of the structure repeat per unit of distance. The SI unit of spatial frequency is cycles per
meter The metre (British spelling) or meter (American spelling; see spelling differences) (from the French unit , from the Greek noun , "measure"), symbol m, is the primary unit of length in the International System of Units (SI), though its pref ...
(m). In image-processing applications, spatial frequency is often expressed in units of cycles per
millimeter 330px, Different lengths as in respect to the electromagnetic spectrum, measured by the metre and its derived scales. The microwave is between 1 meter to 1 millimeter. The millimetre (American and British English spelling differences#-re, -er, ...
(mm) or equivalently line pairs per mm. In
wave propagation Wave propagation is any of the ways in which waves travel. Single wave propagation can be calculated by 2nd order wave equation ( standing wavefield) or 1st order one-way wave equation. With respect to the direction of the oscillation relative to ...
, the spatial frequency is also known as ''
wavenumber In the physical sciences, the wavenumber (also wave number or repetency) is the ''spatial frequency'' of a wave, measured in cycles per unit distance (ordinary wavenumber) or radians per unit distance (angular wavenumber). It is analogous to temp ...
''. Ordinary wavenumber is defined as the reciprocal of
wavelength In physics, the wavelength is the spatial period of a periodic wave—the distance over which the wave's shape repeats. It is the distance between consecutive corresponding points of the same phase on the wave, such as two adjacent crests, tro ...
\lambda and is commonly denoted by \xi or sometimes \nu: :\xi = \frac. Angular wavenumber k, expressed in
rad RAD or Rad may refer to: People * Robert Anthony Rad Dougall (born 1951), South African former racing driver * Rad Hourani, Canadian fashion designer and artist * Nickname of Leonardus Rad Kortenhorst (1886–1963), Dutch politician * Radley R ...
per m, is related to ordinary wavenumber and wavelength by :k = 2 \pi \xi = \frac.


Visual perception

In the study of
visual perception Visual perception is the ability to interpret the surrounding environment through photopic vision (daytime vision), color vision, scotopic vision (night vision), and mesopic vision (twilight vision), using light in the visible spectrum reflecte ...
,
sinusoidal A sine wave, sinusoidal wave, or just sinusoid is a mathematical curve defined in terms of the '' sine'' trigonometric function, of which it is the graph. It is a type of continuous wave and also a smooth periodic function. It occurs often in m ...
grating A grating is any regularly spaced collection of essentially identical, parallel, elongated elements. Gratings usually consist of a single set of elongated elements, but can consist of two sets, in which case the second set is usually perpendicul ...
s are frequently used to probe the capabilities of the
visual system The visual system comprises the sensory organ (the eye) and parts of the central nervous system (the retina containing photoreceptor cells, the optic nerve, the optic tract and the visual cortex) which gives organisms the sense of sight (the a ...
. In these
stimuli A stimulus is something that causes a physiological response. It may refer to: * Stimulation ** Stimulus (physiology), something external that influences an activity ** Stimulus (psychology), a concept in behaviorism and perception * Stimulus (eco ...
, spatial frequency is expressed as the number of cycles per
degree Degree may refer to: As a unit of measurement * Degree (angle), a unit of angle measurement ** Degree of geographical latitude ** Degree of geographical longitude * Degree symbol (°), a notation used in science, engineering, and mathematics ...
of
visual angle Visual angle is the angle a viewed object subtends at the eye, usually stated in degrees of arc. It also is called the object's angular size. The diagram on the right shows an observer's eye looking at a frontal extent (the vertical arrow) tha ...
. Sine-wave gratings also differ from one another in amplitude (the magnitude of difference in intensity between light and dark stripes), and angle.


Spatial-frequency theory

The spatial-frequency theory refers to the theory that the
visual cortex The visual cortex of the brain is the area of the cerebral cortex that processes visual information. It is located in the occipital lobe. Sensory input originating from the eyes travels through the lateral geniculate nucleus in the thalamus and ...
operates on a code of spatial frequency, not on the code of straight edges and lines hypothesised by Hubel and Wiesel on the basis of early experiments on V1 neurons in the cat. In support of this theory is the experimental observation that the visual cortex neurons respond even more robustly to sine-wave gratings that are placed at specific angles in their receptive fields than they do to edges or bars. Most neurons in the primary visual cortex respond best when a sine-wave grating of a particular frequency is presented at a particular angle in a particular location in the visual field. (However, as noted by Teller (1984), it is probably not wise to treat the highest firing rate of a particular neuron as having a special significance with respect to its role in the perception of a particular stimulus, given that the neural code is known to be linked to relative firing rates. For example, in color coding by the three cones in the human retina, there is no special significance to the cone that is firing most strongly – what matters is the relative rate of firing of all three simultaneously. Teller (1984) similarly noted that a strong firing rate in response to a particular stimulus should not be interpreted as indicating that the neuron is somehow specialized for that stimulus, since there is an unlimited equivalence class of stimuli capable of producing similar firing rates.) The spatial-frequency theory of vision is based on two physical principles: # Any visual stimulus can be represented by plotting the intensity of the light along lines running through it. # Any curve can be broken down into constituent sine waves by
Fourier analysis In mathematics, Fourier analysis () is the study of the way general functions may be represented or approximated by sums of simpler trigonometric functions. Fourier analysis grew from the study of Fourier series, and is named after Josep ...
. The theory (for which empirical support has yet to be developed) states that in each functional module of the visual cortex, Fourier analysis is performed on the receptive field and the neurons in each module are thought to respond selectively to various orientations and frequencies of sine wave gratings. When all of the visual cortex neurons that are influenced by a specific scene respond together, the perception of the scene is created by the summation of the various sine-wave gratings. (This procedure, however, does not address the problem of the organization of the products of the summation into figures, grounds, and so on. It effectively recovers the original (pre-Fourier analysis) distribution of photon intensity and wavelengths across the retinal projection, but does not add information to this original distribution. So the functional value of such a hypothesized procedure is unclear. Some other objections to the "Fourier theory" are discussed by Westheimer (2001) ). One is generally not aware of the individual spatial frequency components since all of the elements are essentially blended together into one smooth representation. However, computer-based filtering procedures can be used to deconstruct an image into its individual spatial frequency components. Research on spatial frequency detection by visual neurons complements and extends previous research using straight edges rather than refuting it. Further research shows that different spatial frequencies convey different information about the appearance of a stimulus. High spatial frequencies represent abrupt spatial changes in the image, such as edges, and generally correspond to featural information and fine detail. M. Bar (2004) has proposed that low spatial frequencies represent global information about the shape, such as general orientation and proportions. Rapid and specialised perception of faces is known to rely more on low spatial frequency information. In the general population of adults, the threshold for spatial frequency discrimination is about 7%. It is often poorer in dyslexic individuals.


Spatial frequency in MRI

When spatial frequency is used as a variable in a mathematical function, the function is said to be in ''k-space'' . Two dimensional k-space has been introduced into
MRI Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a medical imaging technique used in radiology to form pictures of the anatomy and the physiological processes of the body. MRI scanners use strong magnetic fields, magnetic field gradients, and radio waves ...
as a raw data storage space. The value of each data point in k-space is measured in the unit of 1/meter, ''i.e.'' the unit of spatial frequency. It is very common that the raw data in k-space shows features of periodic functions. The periodicity is not spatial frequency, but is temporal frequency. An MRI raw data matrix is composed of a series of phase-variable spin-echo signals. Each of the spin-echo signal is a
sinc function In mathematics, physics and engineering, the sinc function, denoted by , has two forms, normalized and unnormalized.. In mathematics, the historical unnormalized sinc function is defined for by \operatornamex = \frac. Alternatively, the u ...
of time, which can be described by :Spin-Echo = \frac Where : \omega_\mathrm=\omega_\mathrm + \bar rG Here \bar is the gyromagnetic ratio constant, and \omega_\mathrm is the basic resonance frequency of the spin. Due to the presence of the gradient ''G'', the spatial information r is encoded onto the frequency \omega. The periodicity seen in the MRI raw data is just this frequency \omega_\mathrm, which is basically the temporal frequency in nature. In a rotating frame, \omega_\mathrm=0 , and \omega_\mathrm is simplified to \bar rG. Just by letting k= \bar Gt, the spin-echo signal is expressed in an alternative form :Spin-Echo = \frac Now, the spin-echo signal is in the k-space. It becomes a periodic function of ''k'' with ''r'' as the ''k-space frequency'' but not as the "spatial frequency", since "spatial frequency" is reserved for the name of the periodicity seen in the real space r. The k-space domain and the space domain form a Fourier pair. Two pieces of information are found in each domain, the spatial information and the spatial frequency information. The spatial information, which is of great interest to all medical doctors, is seen as periodic functions in the k-space domain and is seen as the image in the space domain. The spatial frequency information, which might be of interest to some MRI engineers, is not easily seen in the space domain but is readily seen as the data points in the k-space domain.


See also

*
Fourier analysis In mathematics, Fourier analysis () is the study of the way general functions may be represented or approximated by sums of simpler trigonometric functions. Fourier analysis grew from the study of Fourier series, and is named after Josep ...
*
Superlens A superlens, or super lens, is a lens (optics), lens which uses metamaterials to go beyond the diffraction limit. For example, in 1995, Guerra combined a transparent grating having 50nm lines and spaces (the "metamaterial") with a conventional micro ...
*
Visual perception Visual perception is the ability to interpret the surrounding environment through photopic vision (daytime vision), color vision, scotopic vision (night vision), and mesopic vision (twilight vision), using light in the visible spectrum reflecte ...
* Fringe visibility * k-space


References


External links

* * {{cite web , url = http://webvision.med.utah.edu/KallSpatial.html#contrast , title = Webvision: Part IX Psychophysics of Vision. 2 Visual Acuity, Contrast Sensitivity , publisher = University of Utah , first1 = Michael , last1 = Kalloniatis , first2 = Charles , last2 = Luu , year = 2007 , access-date = 19 July 2009 Mathematical physics Space