HOME

TheInfoList



OR:

The Viceroyalty of Peru ( es, Virreinato del Perú, links=no) was a
Spanish Spanish might refer to: * Items from or related to Spain: **Spaniards are a nation and ethnic group indigenous to Spain **Spanish language, spoken in Spain and many Latin American countries **Spanish cuisine Other places * Spanish, Ontario, Cana ...
imperial provincial administrative district, created in 1542, that originally contained modern-day
Peru , image_flag = Flag of Peru.svg , image_coat = Escudo nacional del Perú.svg , other_symbol = Great Seal of the State , other_symbol_type = Seal (emblem), National seal , national_motto = "Fi ...
and most of the
Spanish Empire The Spanish Empire ( es, link=no, Imperio español), also known as the Hispanic Monarchy ( es, link=no, Monarquía Hispánica) or the Catholic Monarchy ( es, link=no, Monarquía Católica) was a colonial empire governed by Spain and its prede ...
in South America, governed from the capital of
Lima Lima ( ; ), originally founded as Ciudad de Los Reyes (City of The Kings) is the capital and the largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón River, Chillón, Rímac River, Rímac and Lurín Rivers, in the desert zone of t ...
. The Viceroyalty of Peru was officially called the Kingdom of Peru. Peru was one of the two Spanish
Viceroyalties A viceroy () is an official who reigns over a polity in the name of and as the representative of the monarch of the territory. The term derives from the Latin prefix ''vice-'', meaning "in the place of" and the French word ''roy'', meaning " ...
in the Americas from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries. The Spanish did not resist the Portuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian established by the
Treaty of Tordesillas The Treaty of Tordesillas, ; pt, Tratado de Tordesilhas . signed in Tordesillas, Spain on 7 June 1494, and authenticated in Setúbal, Portugal, divided the newly discovered lands outside Europe between the Portuguese Empire and the Spanish Emp ...
. The treaty was rendered meaningless between 1580 and 1640 while Spain controlled Portugal. The creation during the 18th century of Viceroyalties of New Granada and
Río de la Plata The Río de la Plata (, "river of silver"), also called the River Plate or La Plata River in English, is the estuary formed by the confluence of the Uruguay River and the Paraná River at Punta Gorda. It empties into the Atlantic Ocean and fo ...
(at the expense of Peru's territory) reduced the importance of Lima and shifted the lucrative
Andean The Andes, Andes Mountains or Andean Mountains (; ) are the List of mountain ranges#Mountain ranges by length, longest continental mountain range in the world, forming a continuous highland along the western edge of South America. The range i ...
trade to
Buenos Aires Buenos Aires ( or ; ), officially the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires ( es, link=no, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires), is the capital and primate city of Argentina. The city is located on the western shore of the Río de la Plata, on South ...
, while the fall of the mining and textile production accelerated the progressive decay of the Viceroyalty of Peru. Eventually, the viceroyalty would dissolve, as with much of the Spanish Empire, when challenged by national independence movements at the beginning of the nineteenth century. These movements led to the formation of the modern-day country of
Peru , image_flag = Flag of Peru.svg , image_coat = Escudo nacional del Perú.svg , other_symbol = Great Seal of the State , other_symbol_type = Seal (emblem), National seal , national_motto = "Fi ...
, as well as
Chile Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a country in the western part of South America. It is the southernmost country in the world, and the closest to Antarctica, occupying a long and narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east a ...
,
Colombia Colombia (, ; ), officially the Republic of Colombia, is a country in South America with insular regions in North America—near Nicaragua's Caribbean coast—as well as in the Pacific Ocean. The Colombian mainland is bordered by the Car ...
,
Panama Panama ( , ; es, link=no, Panamá ), officially the Republic of Panama ( es, República de Panamá), is a transcontinental country spanning the southern part of North America and the northern part of South America. It is bordered by Cos ...
,
Ecuador Ecuador ( ; ; Quechua: ''Ikwayur''; Shuar: ''Ecuador'' or ''Ekuatur''), officially the Republic of Ecuador ( es, República del Ecuador, which literally translates as "Republic of the Equator"; Quechua: ''Ikwadur Ripuwlika''; Shuar: ''Eku ...
,
Bolivia , image_flag = Bandera de Bolivia (Estado).svg , flag_alt = Horizontal tricolor (red, yellow, and green from top to bottom) with the coat of arms of Bolivia in the center , flag_alt2 = 7 × 7 square p ...
,
Paraguay Paraguay (; ), officially the Republic of Paraguay ( es, República del Paraguay, links=no; gn, Tavakuairetã Paraguái, links=si), is a landlocked country in South America. It is bordered by Argentina to the south and southwest, Brazil to th ...
,
Uruguay Uruguay (; ), officially the Oriental Republic of Uruguay ( es, República Oriental del Uruguay), is a country in South America. It shares borders with Argentina to its west and southwest and Brazil to its north and northeast; while bordering ...
, and
Argentina Argentina (), officially the Argentine Republic ( es, link=no, República Argentina), is a country in the southern half of South America. Argentina covers an area of , making it the second-largest country in South America after Brazil, th ...
, the territories that at one point or another had constituted the Viceroyalty of Peru.


History


Conquest of Peru

After the
Spanish conquest of Peru The Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire, also known as the Conquest of Peru, was one of the most important campaigns in the Spanish colonization of the Americas. After years of preliminary exploration and military skirmishes, 168 Spanish sol ...
,
Charles V Charles V may refer to: * Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (1500–1558) * Charles V of Naples (1661–1700), better known as Charles II of Spain * Charles V of France (1338–1380), called the Wise * Charles V, Duke of Lorraine (1643–1690) * Infan ...
granted the conquistadors with ''adelantados'', gave them the right to become governors and justices of the region they conquered. Prior to the establishment of the Viceroyalty of Peru, several major
governorates A governorate is an administrative division of a state. It is headed by a governor. As English-speaking nations tend to call regions administered by governors either State (administrative division), states or province, provinces, the term ''govern ...
formed from these grants, including the
Governorate of New Castile The Governorate of New Castile (''Gobernación de Nueva Castilla'', ) was the gubernatorial region administered to Francisco Pizarro in 1529 by King Charles I of Spain, of which he was appointed governor. The region roughly consisted of modern ...
(1529),
Governorate of New Toledo The Governorate of New Toledo was a Spanish Governorate of the Crown of Castile formed from the previous southern half of the Inca Empire, stretching south into present day central Chile, and east into present day central Brazil. It was estab ...
(1534),
Governorate of New Andalusia The Governorate of New Andalusia was a Spanish Governorate of the Crown of Castile in South America which existed between 1534–1617. History The governorate was created as one of King Charles V's grants of 1534, establishing the ''adelantado' ...
(1534), and
Province of Tierra Firme During Spain's New World Empire, its mainland coastal possessions surrounding the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico were referred to collectively as the Spanish Main. The southern portion of these coastal possessions were known as the Provin ...
(1539).


Exploration and settlement (1542–1643)

In 1542, the Spanish organized the existing governorates into the Viceroyalty of New Castile, which shortly afterward would be called the Viceroyalty of Peru, in order to properly control and govern the Spanish South America. In 1544,
Holy Roman Emperor The Holy Roman Emperor, originally and officially the Emperor of the Romans ( la, Imperator Romanorum, german: Kaiser der Römer) during the Middle Ages, and also known as the Roman-German Emperor since the early modern period ( la, Imperat ...
Charles V Charles V may refer to: * Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (1500–1558) * Charles V of Naples (1661–1700), better known as Charles II of Spain * Charles V of France (1338–1380), called the Wise * Charles V, Duke of Lorraine (1643–1690) * Infan ...
(King Charles I of Spain) named
Blasco Núñez Vela Blasco Núñez Vela (c. 1490 – January 18, 1546) was the first Spanish viceroy of South America ("Viceroyalty of Peru"). Serving from May 15, 1544 to January 18, 1546, he was charged by Charles V with the enforcement of the controversial ...
Peru's first viceroy. From September 2, 1564, to November 26, 1569,
Lope García de Castro Lope García de Castro (1516 - 8 January 1576) was a Spanish colonial administrator, member of the Council of the Indies and of the Audiencia Real, Audiencias of Panama and Lima. From September 2, 1564 to November 26, 1569 he was interim viceroy ...
, a Spanish colonial administrator who constituted the first Audiencia in Spanish South America, served as the interim viceroy of Peru. Although established, the viceroyalty was not properly organized until the arrival of Viceroy Francisco Álvarez de Toledo, who made an extensive tour of inspection of the region. Francisco de Toledo, "one of the great administrators of human times", established the
Inquisition The Inquisition was a group of institutions within the Catholic Church whose aim was to combat heresy, conducting trials of suspected heretics. Studies of the records have found that the overwhelming majority of sentences consisted of penances, ...
in the viceroyalty and promulgated laws that applied to Indians and Spanish alike, breaking the power of the
encomenderos The ''encomienda'' () was a Spanish labour system that rewarded conquerors with the labour of conquered non-Christian peoples. The labourers, in theory, were provided with benefits by the conquerors for whom they laboured, including military ...
and reducing the old system of '' mita'' (the Incan system of mandatory labor tribute). He improved the defensibility of the viceroyalty with fortifications, bridges, and ''la Armada del Mar del Sur'' (the Southern Fleet) against pirates. He ended the indigenous
Neo-Inca State The Neo-Inca State, also known as the Neo-Inca state of Vilcabamba, was the Inca state established in 1537 at Vilcabamba by Manco Inca Yupanqui (the son of Inca emperor Huayna Capac). It is considered a rump state of the Inca Empire (1438–153 ...
in Vilcabamba, executing the Inca
Túpac Amaru Túpac Amaru (1545 – 24 September 1572) (first name also spelled Tupac, Topa, Tupaq, Thupaq, Thupa, last name also spelled Amaro instead of Amaru) was the last Sapa Inca of the Neo-Inca State, the final remaining independent part of the Inca ...
, and promoted economic development from the commercial monopoly and mineral extraction, mainly from silver mines in
Potosí Potosí, known as Villa Imperial de Potosí in the colonial period, is the capital city and a municipality of the Department of Potosí in Bolivia. It is one of the highest cities in the world at a nominal . For centuries, it was the location o ...
. The
Amazon Basin The Amazon basin is the part of South America drained by the Amazon River and its tributaries. The Amazon drainage basin covers an area of about , or about 35.5 percent of the South American continent. It is located in the countries of Bolivi ...
and some large adjoining regions had been considered Spanish territory since the
Treaty of Tordesillas The Treaty of Tordesillas, ; pt, Tratado de Tordesilhas . signed in Tordesillas, Spain on 7 June 1494, and authenticated in Setúbal, Portugal, divided the newly discovered lands outside Europe between the Portuguese Empire and the Spanish Emp ...
and explorations such as that by
Francisco de Orellana Francisco de Orellana Bejarano Pizarro y Torres de Altamirano (; 1511 – November 1546) was a Spanish explorer and conquistador. In one of the most improbably successful voyages in known history, Orellana managed to sail the length of the Amaz ...
, but Portugal fell under Spanish control between 1580 and 1640. During this time, Portuguese territories in Brazil were controlled by the Spanish crown, which did object to the spread of Portuguese settlement into parts of the Amazon Basin that the treaty had awarded to Spain. Still,
Luis Jerónimo de Cabrera, 4th Count of Chinchón Luis Jerónimo Fernández de Cabrera Bobadilla Cerda y Mendoza, 4th Count of Chinchón, also known as Luis Xerónimo Fernandes de Cabrera Bobadilla y Mendoza, (1589 in Madrid – October 28, 1647 in Madrid) was a Spanish nobleman, Comendador ...
sent out a third expedition to explore the
Amazon River The Amazon River (, ; es, Río Amazonas, pt, Rio Amazonas) in South America is the largest river by discharge volume of water in the world, and the disputed longest river system in the world in comparison to the Nile. The headwaters of t ...
, under
Cristóbal de Acuña Cristóbal or Cristobal, the Spanish version of Christopher, is a masculine given name and a surname which may refer to: Given name *Cristóbal Balenciaga (1895–1972), Spanish fashion designer *Cristóbal Cobo (born 1976), Chilean academic *Cri ...
; this was part of the return leg of the expedition of
Pedro Teixeira Pedro Teixeira (b.1570-1585 - d.4 July 1641), occasionally referred to as the Conqueror of the Amazon, was a Portugal, Portuguese Exploration, explorer and military officer, who became, in 1637, the first European to travel up and down the entire ...
. Some Pacific islands and
archipelago An archipelago ( ), sometimes called an island group or island chain, is a chain, cluster, or collection of islands, or sometimes a sea containing a small number of scattered islands. Examples of archipelagos include: the Indonesian Archi ...
es were visited by Spanish ships in the sixteenth century, but they made no effort to trade with or colonize them. These included
New Guinea New Guinea (; Hiri Motu Hiri Motu, also known as Police Motu, Pidgin Motu, or just Hiri, is a language of Papua New Guinea, which is spoken in surrounding areas of Port Moresby (Capital of Papua New Guinea). It is a simplified version of ...
(by Ýñigo Ortiz de Retez in 1545), the
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands is an island country consisting of six major islands and over 900 smaller islands in Oceania, to the east of Papua New Guinea and north-west of Vanuatu. It has a land area of , and a population of approx. 700,000. Its capita ...
(in 1568), and the
Marquesas Islands The Marquesas Islands (; french: Îles Marquises or ' or '; Marquesan: ' ( North Marquesan) and ' ( South Marquesan), both meaning "the land of men") are a group of volcanic islands in French Polynesia, an overseas collectivity of France in th ...
(in 1595) by
Álvaro de Mendaña de Neira Álvaro de Mendaña y Neira (or Neyra) (1 October 1542 – 18 October 1595) was a Spanish navigator and discoverer, best known for two of the earliest recorded expeditions across the Pacific in 1567 and 1595. His voyages led to the discovery of ...
. The first
Jesuit reduction Reductions ( es, reducciones, also called ; , pl. ) were settlements created by Spanish rulers and Roman Catholic missionaries in Spanish America and the Spanish East Indies (the Philippines). In Portuguese-speaking Latin America, such red ...
to Christianize the indigenous population was founded in 1609, but some areas occupied by Brazilians as
bandeirantes The ''Bandeirantes'' (), literally "flag-carriers", were slavers, explorers, adventurers, and fortune hunters in early Colonial Brazil. They are largely responsible for Brazil's great expansion westward, far beyond the Tordesillas Line of 1494 ...
gradually extended their activities through much of the basin and adjoining
Mato Grosso Mato Grosso ( – lit. "Thick Bush") is one of the states of Brazil, the third largest by area, located in the Central-West region. The state has 1.66% of the Brazilian population and is responsible for 1.9% of the Brazilian GDP. Neighboring ...
in the 17th and 18th centuries. These groups had the advantage of remote geography and river access from the mouth of the Amazon, which was in Portuguese territory. Meanwhile, the Spanish were barred by their laws from enslaving indigenous people, leaving them without a commercial interest deep in the interior of the basin. A famous attack upon a Spanish mission in 1628 resulted in the enslavement of 60,000 indigenous people. In fact, as time passed, they were used as a self-funding occupation force by the Portuguese authorities in what was effectively a low-level war of territorial conquest. In 1617, viceroy
Francisco de Borja y Aragón Francisco de Borja y Aragón, conde de Rebolledo, prince of Squillace (1581 – September 26, 1658) was a Spanish writer, official in the court of King Philip III of Spain, and, from December 18, 1615 to December 31, 1621, viceroy of Peru. Biogr ...
divided the government of Río de la Plata in two, Buenos Aires and Paraguay, both dependencies of the Viceroyalty of Peru. He established the ''Tribunal del Consulado'', a court and administrative body for commercial affairs in the viceroyalty.
Diego Fernández de Córdoba, Marquis of Guadalcázar Diego is a Spanish masculine given name. The Portuguese equivalent is Diogo. The name also has several patronymic derivations, listed below. The etymology of Diego is disputed, with two major origin hypotheses: ''Tiago'' and ''Didacus''. E ...
, reformed the fiscal system and stopped the interfamily rivalry that was bloodying the domain. Other viceroys, such as
Fernando Torres Fernando José Torres Sanz (; born 20 March 1984) is a Spanish football manager and former player who played as a striker. He is the current manager of Atlético Madrid Juvenil A. Due to his consistent goalscoring rate as a young player, ...
, Fernández de Cabrera, and Fernández Córdoba expanded the royal navy and fortified the ports to resist foreign incursions, such as those led by
privateer A privateer is a private person or ship that engages in maritime warfare under a commission of war. Since robbery under arms was a common aspect of seaborne trade, until the early 19th century all merchant ships carried arms. A sovereign or deleg ...
Thomas Cavendish Sir Thomas Cavendish (1560 – May 1592) was an English explorer and a privateer known as "The Navigator" because he was the first who deliberately tried to emulate Sir Francis Drake and raid the Spanish towns and ships in the Pacific and retu ...
. Fernández de Cabrera also suppressed an insurrection of the
Uru Uru or URU may refer to: Language * Uru dialect of Central Kilimanjaro, a Bantu language of Tanzania * Uru language, the extinct language of the Uros, an Amerindian people * Uru of Ch'imu, an extinct language of the Uros, an Amerindian people ...
and
Mapuche The Mapuche ( (Mapuche & Spanish: )) are a group of indigenous inhabitants of south-central Chile and southwestern Argentina, including parts of Patagonia. The collective term refers to a wide-ranging ethnicity composed of various groups who sha ...
Indians.


The last Spanish Habsburgs (1643–1713)

Viceroys had to protect the Pacific coast from French contraband and English and Dutch pirates and privateers. They expanded the naval forces, fortified the ports of
Valdivia Valdivia (; Mapuche: Ainil) is a city and commune in southern Chile, administered by the Municipality of Valdivia. The city is named after its founder Pedro de Valdivia and is located at the confluence of the Calle-Calle, Valdivia, and Cau-Cau R ...
,
Valparaíso Valparaíso (; ) is a major city, seaport, naval base, and educational centre in the commune of Valparaíso, Chile. "Greater Valparaíso" is the second largest metropolitan area in the country. Valparaíso is located about northwest of Santiago ...
,
Arica Arica ( ; ) is a Communes of Chile, commune and a port city with a population of 222,619 in the Arica Province of northern Chile's Arica y Parinacota Region. It is Chile's northernmost city, being located only south of the border with Peru. The ...
and
Callao Callao () is a Peruvian seaside city and Regions of Peru, region on the Pacific Ocean in the Lima metropolitan area. Callao is Peru's chief seaport and home to its main airport, Jorge Chávez International Airport. Callao municipality consists o ...
and constructed city walls in Lima (1686) and Trujillo (1685–1687). Nevertheless, the famous Welsh privateer
Henry Morgan Sir Henry Morgan ( cy, Harri Morgan; – 25 August 1688) was a privateer, plantation owner, and, later, Lieutenant Governor of Jamaica. From his base in Port Royal, Jamaica, he raided settlements and shipping on the Spanish Main, becoming wea ...
took
Chagres Chagres (), once the chief Atlantic port on the isthmus of Panama, is now an abandoned village at the historical site of Fort San Lorenzo ( es, Fuerte de San Lorenzo). The fort's ruins and the village site are located about west of Colón, on ...
and captured and sacked the city of
Panama Panama ( , ; es, link=no, Panamá ), officially the Republic of Panama ( es, República de Panamá), is a transcontinental country spanning the southern part of North America and the northern part of South America. It is bordered by Cos ...
in the early part of 1670. Also Peruvian forces repelled the attacks by Edward David (1684 and 1686),
Charles Wager Admiral Sir Charles Wager (24 February 1666 – 24 May 1743) was a Royal Navy officer and politician who served as First Lord of the Admiralty from 1733 to 1742. Despite heroic active service and steadfast administration and diplomatic service, ...
and Thomas Colb (1708). The
Peace of Utrecht The Peace of Utrecht was a series of peace treaties signed by the belligerents in the War of the Spanish Succession, in the Dutch city of Utrecht between April 1713 and February 1715. The war involved three contenders for the vacant throne of ...
allowed the
British British may refer to: Peoples, culture, and language * British people, nationals or natives of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories, and Crown Dependencies. ** Britishness, the British identity and common culture * British English, ...
to send ships and merchandise to the fair at
Portobello Portobello, Porto Bello, Porto Belo, Portabello, or Portabella may refer to: Places Brazil * Porto Belo Ireland * Portobello, Dublin * Cathal Brugha Barracks, Dublin formerly ''Portobello Barracks'' New Zealand * Portobello, New Zealand, on Ot ...
. In this period, revolts were common. Around 1656,
Pedro Bohórquez Pedro Chamijo (1602 in Granada, Spain – January 3, 1667 in Lima, Peru), more commonly known as Pedro Bohórquez (or Bohorques) or Inca Hualpa, was a Spanish adventurer in the Viceroyalty of Peru. He was probably born in Spain, but some sources s ...
crowned himself Inca (emperor) of the
Calchaquí The Calchaquí or Kalchakí were a tribe of South American Indians of the Diaguita group, now extinct, who formerly occupied northern Argentina. Stone and other remains prove them to have reached a high degree of civilization. Under the leadership ...
Indians, inciting the indigenous population to revolt. From 1665 until 1668, the rich mineowners José and Gaspar Salcedo revolted against the colonial government. The clergy were opposed to the nomination of prelates from Spain. Viceroy
Diego Ladrón de Guevara Doctor Diego Ladrón de Guevara Orozco Calderón (1641 in Cifuentes, Spain – September 9, 1718) was a Roman Catholic bishop and Spanish colonial administrator. From August 30, 1710, to March 2, 1716, he was viceroy of Peru. Before his term as ...
had to take measures against an uprising of slaves at the
hacienda An ''hacienda'' ( or ; or ) is an estate (or ''finca''), similar to a Roman ''latifundium'', in Spain and the former Spanish Empire. With origins in Andalusia, ''haciendas'' were variously plantations (perhaps including animals or orchards), ...
of Huachipa de Lima. There were terrible earthquakes (1655, 1687) and epidemics, too. During
Baltasar de la Cueva Enríquez Baltasar de la Cueva y Enríquez de Cabrera, ''iure uxoris'' Count of Castellar and Marquis of Malagón (sometimes ''Baltasar de la Cueva Enríquez de Cabrera y Arias de Saavedra'') (1626 in Madrid – April 2, 1686) was viceroy of Peru from ...
's administration, the laws of the Indies were compiled.
Diego de Benavides y de la Cueva Don Diego de Benavides de la Cueva y Bazán, 1st Marquess of Solera and 8th Count of Santisteban del Puerto (sometimes ''Don Diego Benavides y de la Cueva, conde de Santisteban del Puerto'') (1607, Santisteban del Puerto, Jaén, Spain – ca ...
issued the ''Ordenanza de Obrajes'' (Ordenance of Manufactures) in 1664 and Pedro Álvarez de Toledo y Leiva introduced the ''papel sellado'' (literally, sealed paper). In 1683
Melchor de Navarra y Rocafull Don Melchor de Navarra y Rocafull, '' jure uxoris'' Duke of Palata, Prince of Massalubrense (sometimes ''Melchor de Navarra y Rocaful'') (1626 in Aragon, Spain; April 13, 1691 in Portobelo, Panamá) was a Spanish politician. From November 20, 168 ...
reestablished the Lima mint, which had been closed since 1572. Viceroy
Diego Ladrón de Guevara Doctor Diego Ladrón de Guevara Orozco Calderón (1641 in Cifuentes, Spain – September 9, 1718) was a Roman Catholic bishop and Spanish colonial administrator. From August 30, 1710, to March 2, 1716, he was viceroy of Peru. Before his term as ...
increased the production of silver in the mines of
Potosí Potosí, known as Villa Imperial de Potosí in the colonial period, is the capital city and a municipality of the Department of Potosí in Bolivia. It is one of the highest cities in the world at a nominal . For centuries, it was the location o ...
, and stimulated production in other mines at San Nicolás,
Cajatambo Cajatambo or Kashatampu is the capital of the Cajatambo Province in the Lima Region of Peru. History Founded during the Tawantinsuyu (Inca Empire) before the advent of the Spanish conquistadors, with the name of ''Kasha Tanpu'', it was one of ...
and
Huancavelica Huancavelica () or Wankawillka in Quechua is a city in Peru. It is the capital of the department of Huancavelica and according to the 2017 census had a population of 49,570 people. The city was established on August 5, 1572 by the Viceroy ...
. He limited the manufacture of
aguardiente ( Spanish), or ( Portuguese) ( eu, pattar; ca, aiguardent; gl, augardente), is a generic term for alcoholic beverages that contain between 29% and 60% alcohol by volume (ABV). It originates in the Iberian Peninsula (Portugal and Spain) and in ...
from
sugar cane Sugarcane or sugar cane is a species of (often hybrid) tall, perennial grass (in the genus ''Saccharum'', tribe Andropogoneae) that is used for sugar production. The plants are 2–6 m (6–20 ft) tall with stout, jointed, fibrous stalks t ...
to authorized factories, which he taxed heavily. The Churches of Los Desamparados (1672), La Buena Muerte and the convent of Mínimos de San Francisco de Paula were finished and opened. The Hospital of Espiritu Santo in Lima and San Bartolomé hospital were built.


The Bourbon Reforms (1713–1806)

In 1717 the
Viceroyalty of New Granada The Viceroyalty of New Granada ( es, Virreinato de Nueva Granada, links=no ) also called Viceroyalty of the New Kingdom of Granada or Viceroyalty of Santafé was the name given on 27 May 1717, to the jurisdiction of the Spanish Empire in norther ...
was created from the northern territories, the '' Audiencias'' of
Bogotá Bogotá (, also , , ), officially Bogotá, Distrito Capital, abbreviated Bogotá, D.C., and formerly known as Santa Fe de Bogotá (; ) during the Spanish period and between 1991 and 2000, is the capital city of Colombia, and one of the larges ...
,
Quito Quito (; qu, Kitu), formally San Francisco de Quito, is the capital and largest city of Ecuador, with an estimated population of 2.8 million in its urban area. It is also the capital of the province of Pichincha. Quito is located in a valley o ...
and
Panamá Panama ( , ; es, link=no, Panamá ), officially the Republic of Panama ( es, República de Panamá), is a transcontinental country spanning the southern part of North America and the northern part of South America. It is bordered by Cost ...
. This viceroyalty initially lasted only until 1724, but was reestablished permanently in 1740. With the creation of the
Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata The Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata ( es, Virreinato del Río de la Plata or es, Virreinato de las Provincias del Río de la Plata) meaning "River of the Silver", also called "Viceroyalty of the River Plate" in some scholarly writings, in ...
from southern areas that are now
Argentina Argentina (), officially the Argentine Republic ( es, link=no, República Argentina), is a country in the southern half of South America. Argentina covers an area of , making it the second-largest country in South America after Brazil, th ...
,
Bolivia , image_flag = Bandera de Bolivia (Estado).svg , flag_alt = Horizontal tricolor (red, yellow, and green from top to bottom) with the coat of arms of Bolivia in the center , flag_alt2 = 7 × 7 square p ...
,
Paraguay Paraguay (; ), officially the Republic of Paraguay ( es, República del Paraguay, links=no; gn, Tavakuairetã Paraguái, links=si), is a landlocked country in South America. It is bordered by Argentina to the south and southwest, Brazil to th ...
and
Uruguay Uruguay (; ), officially the Oriental Republic of Uruguay ( es, República Oriental del Uruguay), is a country in South America. It shares borders with Argentina to its west and southwest and Brazil to its north and northeast; while bordering ...
in 1776, the Charcas and Buenos Aires ''audiencias'' were similarly lost. The 256-year-old
Treaty of Tordesillas The Treaty of Tordesillas, ; pt, Tratado de Tordesilhas . signed in Tordesillas, Spain on 7 June 1494, and authenticated in Setúbal, Portugal, divided the newly discovered lands outside Europe between the Portuguese Empire and the Spanish Emp ...
was superseded by the 1750 Treaty of Madrid which granted Portugal control of the lands it had occupied in South America in the intervening centuries. This Portuguese occupation led to the
Guaraní War The Guarani War ( es, link=no, Guerra Guaranítica, pt, Guerra Guaranítica) of 1756, also called the War of the Seven Reductions, took place between the Guaraní tribes of seven Jesuit Reductions and joint Spanish-Portuguese forces. It was a re ...
of 1756. Amazonas is named after the
Amazon River The Amazon River (, ; es, Río Amazonas, pt, Rio Amazonas) in South America is the largest river by discharge volume of water in the world, and the disputed longest river system in the world in comparison to the Nile. The headwaters of t ...
, and was formerly part of the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru, a region called Spanish Guyana. It was settled by the Portuguese in the early 18th century and incorporated into the
Portuguese empire The Portuguese Empire ( pt, Império Português), also known as the Portuguese Overseas (''Ultramar Português'') or the Portuguese Colonial Empire (''Império Colonial Português''), was composed of the overseas colonies, factories, and the l ...
after the Treaty of Madrid in 1750. It became a state of the
Brazilian Republic Brazil ( pt, Brasil; ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: ), is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. At and with over 217 million people, Brazil is the world's fifth-largest country by area an ...
in 1889. Image:Brazil (1534).svg, 1534
''Portuguese America according to the
Treaty of Tordesillas The Treaty of Tordesillas, ; pt, Tratado de Tordesilhas . signed in Tordesillas, Spain on 7 June 1494, and authenticated in Setúbal, Portugal, divided the newly discovered lands outside Europe between the Portuguese Empire and the Spanish Emp ...
'' Image:Brazil (1750).svg, 1750
''Portuguese America according to the Treaty of Madrid (1750)''
Several viceroys had scientific, political and economic impact on the Viceroyalty.
Manuel de Amat y Juniet Manuel de Amat y Junyent, OSJ, OM ( ca, Manuel d'Amat i de Junyent) (March 1707 – February 14, 1782) was a Spanish military officer and colonial administrator. He was the Royal Governor of the Captaincy General of Chile from December 28, 175 ...
organized an expedition to
Tahiti Tahiti (; Tahitian ; ; previously also known as Otaheite) is the largest island of the Windward group of the Society Islands in French Polynesia. It is located in the central part of the Pacific Ocean and the nearest major landmass is Austr ...
. Viceroy
Teodoro de Croix Teodoro de Croix (June 20, 1730, Prévoté Castle, near Lille, France – 1792, Madrid) was a Spanish soldier and colonial official in New Spain and Peru. From April 6, 1784 to March 25, 1790 he was viceroy of Peru. Background Teodoro de Croi ...
also decentralized the government through the creation of eight ''
intendencia An intendant (; pt, intendente ; es, intendente ) was, and sometimes still is, a public official, especially in France, Spain, Portugal, and Latin America. The intendancy system was a centralizing administrative system developed in France. In ...
s'' in the area of the ''Audiencia'' of Lima, and two in the
Captaincy General of Chile The Captaincy General of Chile (''Capitanía General de Chile'' ) or Governorate of Chile (known colloquially and unofficially as the Kingdom of Chile), was a territory of the Spanish Empire from 1541 to 1817 that was, for most of its existenc ...
.
Francisco Gil de Taboada Francisco Gil de Taboada y Lemos (in full ''Francisco Gil de Taboada y de Lemos y Villa Marín'') (September 24, 1733 in Santa María de Soto Longo, Galicia, Spain – 1809 in Madrid) was a Spanish naval officer and colonial administrator in ...
reincorporated the region of
Puno Puno (Aymara and qu, Punu) is a city in southeastern Peru, located on the shore of Lake Titicaca. It is the capital city of the Puno Region and the Puno Province with a population of approximately 140,839 (2015 estimate). The city was establish ...
into the Viceroyalty of Peru.
José de Armendáriz José is a predominantly Spanish and Portuguese form of the given name Joseph. While spelled alike, this name is pronounced differently in each language: Spanish ; Portuguese (or ). In French, the name ''José'', pronounced , is an old vernacul ...
stimulated the production of silver and took steps against fraud, corruption and smuggling. Amat y Juniet established the first Regulation of Commerce and Organization of Customs rules, which led to the building of the customshouse in Callao. Teodoro de Croix collaborated in the creation of the ''Junta Superior de Comercio'' and the ''Tribunal de Minería'' (1786). An earthquake demolished
Lima Lima ( ; ), originally founded as Ciudad de Los Reyes (City of The Kings) is the capital and the largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón River, Chillón, Rímac River, Rímac and Lurín Rivers, in the desert zone of t ...
and
Callao Callao () is a Peruvian seaside city and Regions of Peru, region on the Pacific Ocean in the Lima metropolitan area. Callao is Peru's chief seaport and home to its main airport, Jorge Chávez International Airport. Callao municipality consists o ...
, in 1746. Viceroy Amat y Juniet constructed various public works in Lima, including the first bull ring.
Manuel de Guirior Manuel de Guirior (in full, ''Manuel de Guirior y Portal de Huarte y Edozain, marqués de Guirior'') (1708 – November 25, 1788) was a Spanish naval officer and colonial administrator. He was viceroy of New Granada from 1772 to 1776 and of Pe ...
also improved the medical care at ten hospitals in Lima and established a foundling home. War between Spain and Britain again broke out (the
War of Jenkins' Ear The War of Jenkins' Ear, or , was a conflict lasting from 1739 to 1748 between Britain and the Spanish Empire. The majority of the fighting took place in New Granada and the Caribbean Sea, with major operations largely ended by 1742. It is con ...
, 1739–1748). Amat y Juniet constructed the fortress of Real Felipe in Callao in 1774. Nevertheless, throughout this period, rebellions by
Native Peruvians The Indigenous peoples of Peru, or Native Peruvians, comprise a large number of ethnic groups who inhabit territory in present-day Peru. Indigenous cultures developed here for thousands of years before the arrival of the Spanish in 1532. In 2017 ...
were not entirely suppressed. In the eighteenth century alone, there were fourteen large uprisings, the most important of which were that of
Juan Santos Atahualpa Juan Santos Atahualpa Apu-Inca Huayna Capac (c. 1710 – c. 1756) was the messianic leader of a successful indigenous rebellion in the Amazon Basin and Andean foothills against the Viceroyalty of Peru in the Spanish Empire. The rebellion began i ...
in 1742, and the
Sierra Uprising Sierra (Spanish for "mountain range" and "saw", from Latin ''wikt:serra#Latin, serra'') may refer to the following: Places Mountains and mountain ranges * Sierra de Juárez, a mountain range in Baja California, Mexico * Sierra de las Nieves, a ...
of
Túpac Amaru II José Gabriel Condorcanqui ( – May 18, 1781)known as Túpac Amaru II was an indigenous Cacique who led a large Andean rebellion against the Spanish in Peru. He later became a mythical figure in the Peruvian struggle for independence and in ...
in 1780. The Comunero Revolt broke out in
Paraguay Paraguay (; ), officially the Republic of Paraguay ( es, República del Paraguay, links=no; gn, Tavakuairetã Paraguái, links=si), is a landlocked country in South America. It is bordered by Argentina to the south and southwest, Brazil to th ...
from 1721 to 1732). In 1767, the
Jesuits The Society of Jesus ( la, Societas Iesu; abbreviation: SJ), also known as the Jesuits (; la, Iesuitæ), is a religious order (Catholic), religious order of clerics regular of pontifical right for men in the Catholic Church headquartered in Rom ...
were expelled from the colony.


End of the Viceroyalty (1806–24)

Viceroy
José Fernando de Abascal y Sousa José Fernando de Abascal y Sousa, 1st Marquess of Concordia, KOS ( es, José Fernando de Abascal y Sousa, primer Marqués de la Concordia), (sometimes spelled ''Souza'') (June 3, 1743 in Oviedo, Asturias, Spain – June 30, 1821 in Madrid) was a ...
promoted educational reforms, reorganized the army, and stamped out local rebellions. During his administration, the
Inquisition The Inquisition was a group of institutions within the Catholic Church whose aim was to combat heresy, conducting trials of suspected heretics. Studies of the records have found that the overwhelming majority of sentences consisted of penances, ...
of Lima was temporarily abolished as a result of the reforms taken by the Cortes in Spain. When the wars of independence broke out in 1810, Peru was the center of Royalist reaction. Abascal reincorporated the provinces of Córdoba,
Potosí Potosí, known as Villa Imperial de Potosí in the colonial period, is the capital city and a municipality of the Department of Potosí in Bolivia. It is one of the highest cities in the world at a nominal . For centuries, it was the location o ...
,
La Paz La Paz (), officially known as Nuestra Señora de La Paz (Spanish pronunciation: ), is the seat of government of the Bolivia, Plurinational State of Bolivia. With an estimated 816,044 residents as of 2020, La Paz is the List of Bolivian cities ...
, Charcas,
Rancagua Rancagua () is a city and commune in central Chile and part of the Rancagua conurbation. It is the capital of the Cachapoal Province and of the O'Higgins Region, located south of the national capital of Santiago. It was originally named Sant ...
and
Quito Quito (; qu, Kitu), formally San Francisco de Quito, is the capital and largest city of Ecuador, with an estimated population of 2.8 million in its urban area. It is also the capital of the province of Pichincha. Quito is located in a valley o ...
into the Viceroyalty of Peru. The Royal Army of Perú during 14 years defeated the patriots armies of Argentinians and Chileans, turning Peru into the last royal bastion in South America. A large fire in
Guayaquil , motto = Por Guayaquil Independiente en, For Independent Guayaquil , image_map = , map_caption = , pushpin_map = Ecuador#South America , pushpin_re ...
destroyed approximately half of the city in 1812. Lord Cochrane, unsuccessfully attacked Guayaquil and El Callao, but on 4 February he captured Valdivia, called at the time ''The Key of the South Seas'' and the ''Gibraltar of the Pacific'', due to its huge fortifications. However the viceroyalty managed to defend
Chiloé Island Chiloé Island ( es, Isla de Chiloé, , ) also known as Greater Island of Chiloé (''Isla Grande de Chiloé''), is the largest island of the Chiloé Archipelago off the west coast of Chile, in the Pacific Ocean. The island is located in southern ...
until 1826. On September 8, 1820, the ''Expedición Libertadora'' of Peru, organized mainly by Argentinians and with some Peruvian and Chilean's government involvement, landed on the beach at
Paracas Bay Paracas Bay, with its southern end lying within the Paracas National Reservation is well known for its abundant wildlife. The unique ecosystem, insulated from thrashing ocean waves and current by Paracas Peninsula, and its shallow warmer waters, st ...
, near the city of
Pisco Pisco is a colorless or yellowish-to-amber colored brandy produced in winemaking regions of Peru and Chile. Made by distilling fermented grape juice into a high-proof spirit, it was developed by 16th-century Spanish settlers as an alternative ...
. The land army was under the command of
José de San Martín José Francisco de San Martín y Matorras (25 February 177817 August 1850), known simply as José de San Martín () or '' the Liberator of Argentina, Chile and Peru'', was an Argentine general and the primary leader of the southern and cent ...
. after the navy under Thomas Cochrane defeated the navy of the Spanish empire on the Peruvian coasts and have control and surrender of Callao, After fruitless negotiations with the viceroy, the expedition occupied the Peruvian capital of Lima on July 21, 1821. The independence of Peru was proclaimed on July 28, 1821. Viceroy
José de la Serna e Hinojosa José is a predominantly Spanish and Portuguese form of the given name Joseph. While spelled alike, this name is pronounced differently in each language: Spanish ; Portuguese (or ). In French, the name ''José'', pronounced , is an old vernacul ...
, still in command of a sizable military force, retired to
Jauja Jauja (Shawsha Wanka Quechua: Sausa, Shawsha or Shausha, formerly in Spanish Xauxa, with pronunciation of "x" as "sh") is a city and capital of Jauja Province in Peru. It is situated in the fertile Mantaro Valley, to the northwest of Huancayo ( ...
, and later to
Cusco Cusco, often spelled Cuzco (; qu, Qusqu ()), is a city in Southeastern Peru near the Urubamba Valley of the Andes mountain range. It is the capital of the Cusco Region and of the Cusco Province. The city is the list of cities in Peru, seventh m ...
. On July 26, 1822, San Martín and
Simón Bolívar Simón José Antonio de la Santísima Trinidad Bolívar y Palacios (24 July 1783 – 17 December 1830) was a Venezuelan military and political leader who led what are currently the countries of Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Panama and B ...
met in
Guayaquil , motto = Por Guayaquil Independiente en, For Independent Guayaquil , image_map = , map_caption = , pushpin_map = Ecuador#South America , pushpin_re ...
to define a strategy for the liberation of the rest of Peru. The meeting was secret, and exactly what occurred is not known. However, afterwards San Martín returned to Argentina while Bolívar prepared to launch an offensive against the remaining royalist forces in Peru and
Upper Peru Upper Peru (; ) is a name for the land that was governed by the Real Audiencia of Charcas. The name originated in Buenos Aires towards the end of the 18th century after the Audiencia of Charcas was transferred from the Viceroyalty of Peru to th ...
(modern-day
Bolivia , image_flag = Bandera de Bolivia (Estado).svg , flag_alt = Horizontal tricolor (red, yellow, and green from top to bottom) with the coat of arms of Bolivia in the center , flag_alt2 = 7 × 7 square p ...
). In September 1823 Bolívar arrived in Lima with
Antonio José de Sucre Antonio José de Sucre y Alcalá (; 3 February 1795 – 4 June 1830), known as the "Gran Mariscal de Ayacucho" ( en, "Grand Marshal of Ayacucho"), was a Venezuelan independence leader who served as the president of Peru and as the second pr ...
to plan the offensive. In February 1824 the royalists briefly regained control of Lima. Olañeta's Rebellion started by surprise and the entire royalist army of Upper Peru (today's Bolivia) revolted, led by Pedro Antonio Olañeta (royalist) against La Serna, the viceroy of Peru (a liberal). This broke the royal army and started a civil war in Upper Peru. Having regrouped in Trujillo, Bolívar in June led his rebel forces south to confront the Spanish under
Field Marshal Field marshal (or field-marshal, abbreviated as FM) is the most senior military rank, ordinarily senior to the general officer ranks. Usually, it is the highest rank in an army and as such few persons are appointed to it. It is considered as ...
José de Canterac José de Canterac (July 29, 1786, Casteljaloux, Lot-et-Garone, France – April 13, 1835, Madrid, Spain) was a Spanish general of French origin who fought in the Spanish American wars of independence. In 1816 he joined the army of Pablo Mor ...
. The two armies met on the plains of Junín on August 6, 1824, and the Peruvians were victorious in a battle fought entirely without firearms. The Spanish troops subsequently evacuated Lima for a second time. As a result of a decree of the Congress of
Gran Colombia Gran Colombia (, "Great Colombia"), or Greater Colombia, officially the Republic of Colombia (Spanish: ''República de Colombia''), was a state that encompassed much of northern South America and part of southern Central America from 1819 to 18 ...
, Bolívar turned over command of the rebel troops to Sucre on October 7, 1824. Royalist control was now reduced to
Cuzco Cusco, often spelled Cuzco (; qu, Qusqu ()), is a city in Southeastern Peru near the Urubamba Valley of the Andes mountain range. It is the capital of the Cusco Region and of the Cusco Province. The city is the seventh most populous in Peru; ...
in the south-central highlands. The viceroy launched a counter-offensive over
Ayacucho Ayacucho (, qu, Ayak'uchu) is the capital city of Ayacucho Region and of Huamanga Province, Ayacucho Region, Peru. During the Inca Empire and Viceroyalty of Peru periods the city was known by the name of Huamanga (Quechua: Wamanga), and it c ...
. It was there that the final battle for the independence of Peru would be fought. On 9 December 1824, the Battle of Ayacucho, or Battle of La Quinua, took place at Pampa de La Quinua, a few kilometers away from Ayacucho, near the town of
Quinua Quinua is a small town in Quinua District in the province of Huamanga, in Peru's central highland department of Ayacucho, from the city of Huamanga (Ayacucho), at an altitude of , which today serves as the administrative capital of the district ...
. This battle — between royalist (Spanish) and
nationalist Nationalism is an idea and movement that holds that the nation should be congruent with the state. As a movement, nationalism tends to promote the interests of a particular nation (as in a group of people), Smith, Anthony. ''Nationalism: The ...
(
republican Republican can refer to: Political ideology * An advocate of a republic, a type of government that is not a monarchy or dictatorship, and is usually associated with the rule of law. ** Republicanism, the ideology in support of republics or agains ...
) troops — sealed the independence of Peru and South America. The victorious nationalist forces were led by
Antonio José de Sucre Antonio José de Sucre y Alcalá (; 3 February 1795 – 4 June 1830), known as the "Gran Mariscal de Ayacucho" ( en, "Grand Marshal of Ayacucho"), was a Venezuelan independence leader who served as the president of Peru and as the second pr ...
, Bolívar's lieutenant. Viceroy Serna was wounded and taken prisoner. The Spanish army had 2,000 dead and wounded and lost 3,000 prisoners, with the remainder of the army entirely dispersed. After the battle, Serna signed the final capitulation whereby the Spaniards agreed to leave Peru. Serna was released soon afterwards and sailed for Europe. Spain made futile attempts to retain its former territories, such as at the Siege of Callao (1826), but after death of King
Ferdinand VII of Spain , house = Bourbon-Anjou , father = Charles IV of Spain , mother = Maria Luisa of Parma , birth_date = 14 October 1784 , birth_place = El Escorial, Spain , death_date = , death_place = Madrid, Spain , burial_plac ...
, in 1836 government of Spain renounced its territorial and sovereignty claims over all of continental America. In 1867 Spain signed a peace treaty with Peru and in 1879 it signed a treaty recognizing Peru's independence.


Politics

The town of
Lima Lima ( ; ), originally founded as Ciudad de Los Reyes (City of The Kings) is the capital and the largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón River, Chillón, Rímac River, Rímac and Lurín Rivers, in the desert zone of t ...
, founded by Pizarro on January 18, 1535 as the "Ciudad de los Reyes" (City of the Kings/
Magi Magi (; singular magus ; from Latin ''magus'', cf. fa, مغ ) were priests in Zoroastrianism and the earlier religions of the western Iranians. The earliest known use of the word ''magi'' is in the trilingual inscription written by Darius th ...
), became the seat of the new viceroyalty. As the seat of a viceroy, who had oversight over all of Spanish South America except for Portuguese-dominated Brazil, Lima grew into a powerful city. During the 16th, 17th and most of the 18th centuries, all of the colonial wealth of South America created by the silver mines passed through Lima on its way to the
Isthmus of Panama The Isthmus of Panama ( es, Istmo de Panamá), also historically known as the Isthmus of Darien (), is the narrow strip of land that lies between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean, linking North and South America. It contains the country ...
and from there to
Seville Seville (; es, Sevilla, ) is the capital and largest city of the Spanish autonomous community of Andalusia and the province of Seville. It is situated on the lower reaches of the River Guadalquivir, in the southwest of the Iberian Peninsula ...
, Spain. The rest of the viceroyalty dependent upon Lima in administrative matters, in a pattern that persists until today in Peru. By the start of the 18th century, Lima had become a distinguished and aristocratic colonial capital, seat of the 250-year-old Royal and Pontifical University of San Marcos and the chief Spanish stronghold in the Americas. At ground level during the first century, Spanish ''encomenderos'' depended on local chieftains (''
curaca A ''kuraka'' (Quechua for the principal governor of a province or a communal authority in the Tawantinsuyu), or curaca (hispanicized spelling), was an official of the Inca Empire who held the role of magistrate, about four levels down from the Sa ...
s'') to gain access to the Indian population's tribute labor, even the most remote settlements, and therefore, many ''encomenderos'' developed reciprocal, if still hierarchical, relationships with the ''curacas''. By the end of the 16th century the quasi-private ''encomienda'' had been replaced by the ''
repartimiento The ''Repartimiento'' () (Spanish, "distribution, partition, or division") was a colonial labor system imposed upon the indigenous population of Spanish America. In concept, it was similar to other tribute-labor systems, such as the ''mit'a'' of t ...
'' system (known in Peru by the Quechua term, ''mita''), which was controlled by local crown officials. Politically the viceroyalty was further divided into '' audiencias'', which were primarily superior tribunals, but which also had administrative and legislative functions. Each of these was responsible to the Viceroy of Peru in administrative matters (though not in judicial ones). Audiencias further incorporated the older, smaller divisions known as "governorships" (''gobernaciones'', roughly
provinces A province is almost always an administrative division within a country or state. The term derives from the ancient Roman ''provincia'', which was the major territorial and administrative unit of the Roman Empire's territorial possessions outsi ...
) headed by a governor. ''(See,
Adelantado ''Adelantado'' (, , ; meaning "advanced") was a title held by Spanish nobles in service of their respective kings during the Middle Ages. It was later used as a military title held by some Spain, Spanish ''conquistadores'' of the 15th, 16th and 17 ...
.)'' Provinces which were under military threat were grouped into captaincies general, such as the
Captaincy General of Chile The Captaincy General of Chile (''Capitanía General de Chile'' ) or Governorate of Chile (known colloquially and unofficially as the Kingdom of Chile), was a territory of the Spanish Empire from 1541 to 1817 that was, for most of its existenc ...
(established in 1541 and established as a Bourbon captaincy general in 1789), and which were joint military and political commands with a certain level of autonomy. (The viceroy was captain-general of the provinces which remained directly under his command). At the local level there were hundreds of districts, in both Indian and Spanish areas, which were headed by either a ''
corregidor Corregidor ( tl, Pulo ng Corregidor, ) is an island located at the entrance of Manila Bay in the southwestern part of Luzon in the Philippines, and is considered part of the Province of Cavite. Due to this location, Corregidor has historically b ...
'' (also known as an ''alcalde mayor'') or a '' cabildo'' (town council), both of which had judicial and administrative powers. In the late 18th century the Bourbon dynasty began phasing out the ''corregidores'' and introduced
intendant An intendant (; pt, intendente ; es, intendente ) was, and sometimes still is, a public official, especially in France, Spain, Portugal, and Latin America. The intendancy system was a centralizing administrative system developed in France. In ...
s, whose broad fiscal powers cut into the authority of the viceroys, governors and ''cabildos''. (''See
Bourbon Reforms The Bourbon Reforms ( es, Reformas Borbónicas) consisted of political and economic changes promulgated by the Spanish Crown under various kings of the House of Bourbon, since 1700, mainly in the 18th century. The beginning of the new Crown's po ...
.'')


Audiencias

With dates of creation: #
Panamá Panama ( , ; es, link=no, Panamá ), officially the Republic of Panama ( es, República de Panamá), is a transcontinental country spanning the southern part of North America and the northern part of South America. It is bordered by Cost ...
(1st one, 1538–43), (2nd one, 1564–1751)* #
Santa Fe de Bogotá Santa Claus, also known as Father Christmas, Saint Nicholas, Saint Nick, Kris Kringle, or simply Santa, is a legendary figure originating in Western Christian culture who is said to bring children gifts during the late evening and overnight ...
(1548)* #
Quito Quito (; qu, Kitu), formally San Francisco de Quito, is the capital and largest city of Ecuador, with an estimated population of 2.8 million in its urban area. It is also the capital of the province of Pichincha. Quito is located in a valley o ...
(1563)* #
Lima Lima ( ; ), originally founded as Ciudad de Los Reyes (City of The Kings) is the capital and the largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón River, Chillón, Rímac River, Rímac and Lurín Rivers, in the desert zone of t ...
(1543) # La Plata de los Charcas (1559)† #
Chile Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a country in the western part of South America. It is the southernmost country in the world, and the closest to Antarctica, occupying a long and narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east a ...
(1563–73; 1606) Later Audiencias *
Buenos Aires Buenos Aires ( or ; ), officially the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires ( es, link=no, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires), is the capital and primate city of Argentina. The city is located on the western shore of the Río de la Plata, on South ...
(1661–72; 1776)† *
Cuzco Cusco, often spelled Cuzco (; qu, Qusqu ()), is a city in Southeastern Peru near the Urubamba Valley of the Andes mountain range. It is the capital of the Cusco Region and of the Cusco Province. The city is the seventh most populous in Peru; ...
(1787) *Later part of the
Viceroyalty of New Granada The Viceroyalty of New Granada ( es, Virreinato de Nueva Granada, links=no ) also called Viceroyalty of the New Kingdom of Granada or Viceroyalty of Santafé was the name given on 27 May 1717, to the jurisdiction of the Spanish Empire in norther ...

†Later part of the
Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata The Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata ( es, Virreinato del Río de la Plata or es, Virreinato de las Provincias del Río de la Plata) meaning "River of the Silver", also called "Viceroyalty of the River Plate" in some scholarly writings, in ...


Autonomous Captaincy General

1.
Chile Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a country in the western part of South America. It is the southernmost country in the world, and the closest to Antarctica, occupying a long and narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east a ...
(1789)


Intendancies

Listed under year of creation: 1783
1.
Lima Lima ( ; ), originally founded as Ciudad de Los Reyes (City of The Kings) is the capital and the largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón River, Chillón, Rímac River, Rímac and Lurín Rivers, in the desert zone of t ...
, 2.
Puno Puno (Aymara and qu, Punu) is a city in southeastern Peru, located on the shore of Lake Titicaca. It is the capital city of the Puno Region and the Puno Province with a population of approximately 140,839 (2015 estimate). The city was establish ...
1784
3. Trujillo, 4.
Tarma '') , pushpin_map = Peru , coordinates = , subdivision_type = Country , subdivision_name = , subdivision_type1 = Region , subdivision_name1 = Junín , subdivision_type2 = Province ...
, 5.
Huancavelica Huancavelica () or Wankawillka in Quechua is a city in Peru. It is the capital of the department of Huancavelica and according to the 2017 census had a population of 49,570 people. The city was established on August 5, 1572 by the Viceroy ...
, 6.
Cusco Cusco, often spelled Cuzco (; qu, Qusqu ()), is a city in Southeastern Peru near the Urubamba Valley of the Andes mountain range. It is the capital of the Cusco Region and of the Cusco Province. The city is the list of cities in Peru, seventh m ...
, 7.
Arequipa Arequipa (; Aymara and qu, Ariqipa) is a city and capital of province and the eponymous department of Peru. It is the seat of the Constitutional Court of Peru and often dubbed the "legal capital of Peru". It is the second most populated city ...
, (10. Chiloé, abolished in 1789) 1786
8.
Santiago Santiago (, ; ), also known as Santiago de Chile, is the capital and largest city of Chile as well as one of the largest cities in the Americas. It is the center of Chile's most densely populated region, the Santiago Metropolitan Region, whose ...
, 9. Concepción


Economy

The economy of the viceroyalty of Peru largely depended on the export of
silver Silver is a chemical element with the Symbol (chemistry), symbol Ag (from the Latin ', derived from the Proto-Indo-European wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/h₂erǵ-, ''h₂erǵ'': "shiny" or "white") and atomic number 47. A soft, whi ...
. The huge amounts of silver exported from the viceroyalty of Peru and Mexico deeply affected Europe, where some scholars believe it caused the so-called
price revolution The Price Revolution, sometimes known as the Spanish Price Revolution, was a series of economic events that occurred between the second half of the 15th century and the first half of the 17th century, and most specifically linked to the high rate o ...
.Garner, Richard L. Long-Term Silver Mining Trends in Spanish America: A Comparative Analysis of Peru and Mexico Silver mining was carried out using contract and free wage labourers, as well as the mita system of unfree labour, a system inherited from
pre-Hispanic In the history of the Americas, the pre-Columbian era spans from the original settlement of North and South America in the Upper Paleolithic period through European colonization, which began with Christopher Columbus's voyage of 1492. Usually, th ...
times. Silver production peaked in 1610. Once the Viceroyalty of Peru was established,
gold Gold is a chemical element with the symbol Au (from la, aurum) and atomic number 79. This makes it one of the higher atomic number elements that occur naturally. It is a bright, slightly orange-yellow, dense, soft, malleable, and ductile met ...
and
silver Silver is a chemical element with the Symbol (chemistry), symbol Ag (from the Latin ', derived from the Proto-Indo-European wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/h₂erǵ-, ''h₂erǵ'': "shiny" or "white") and atomic number 47. A soft, whi ...
from the Andes enriched the conquerors, and the viceroyalty became the principal source of Spanish wealth and power in South America. The first coins minted for Peru (and indeed for South America) appeared between 1568 and 1570. Viceroy
Manuel de Oms y de Santa Pau Don Manuel de Oms y Santa Pau, 1st Marquess of Castelldosrius, Grandee of Spain (sometimes ''marqués de Castell dos Rius'') (1651 – 24 April 1710) was a Spanish diplomat, man of letters, and colonial official. From July 7, 1707 to April 22, ...
sent back an enormous sum of money (1,600,000 pesos) to the king to cover some of the costs of the
War of the Spanish Succession The War of the Spanish Succession was a European great power conflict that took place from 1701 to 1714. The death of childless Charles II of Spain in November 1700 led to a struggle for control of the Spanish Empire between his heirs, Phil ...
. This was possible in part because of the discovery of the mines in Caraboya. Silver from mines at Potosí, Bolivia, circulated around the world. Peruvian and other New World silver was so plentiful that it caused inflation in Spain and a collapse in its price. Even today, Peru and Bolivia produce much of the world's silver. While most of silver from the viceroyalty ended up in Europe some circulated within South America. Indeed, the
Real Situado The royal situado ( es, real situado) was the Spanish term for revenues that the viceroyalties of Peru, New Spain, New Granada, and Rio de la Plata sent to finance colonial frontier defenses against internal and external enemies. Soon after Pedro ...
was an annual payment of silver from the viceroyalty to finance the permanent Spanish army in Chile that which fought a prolongued conflict known as
Arauco War The Arauco War was a long-running conflict between colonial Spaniards and the Mapuche people, mostly fought in the Araucanía. The conflict began at first as a reaction to the Spanish conquerors attempting to establish cities and force Mapuche ...
. The Spanish in turn traded part of this silver with
Mapuches The Mapuche ( (Mapuche & Spanish: )) are a group of indigenous inhabitants of south-central Chile and southwestern Argentina, including parts of Patagonia. The collective term refers to a wide-ranging ethnicity composed of various groups who sh ...
giving origin to a tradition of
Mapuche silverwork Mapuche silverwork is one of the best known aspects of Mapuche material culture.Painecura 2011, p. 15. The adornments have been subject to changes in fashion but some designs have resisted change. History Prior tradition of gold adornments Mapuch ...
. Another issue that burdened the finances of the viceroyalty was the maintenance of the
Valdivian Fort System The Fort System of Valdivia ( es, Sistema de fuertes de Valdivia) is a series of Spanish colonial fortifications at Corral Bay, Valdivia and Cruces River established to protect the city of Valdivia, in southern Chile. During the period of Spani ...
built in response to the
Dutch expedition to Valdivia The Dutch expedition to Valdivia was a naval expedition, commanded by Hendrik Brouwer, sent by the Dutch Republic in 1643 to establish a base of operations and a trading post on the southern coast of Chile. With Spain and the Dutch Republic ...
in 1643. Luis Jerónimo Fernández de Cabrera prohibited direct trade between Peru and
New Spain New Spain, officially the Viceroyalty of New Spain ( es, Virreinato de Nueva España, ), or Kingdom of New Spain, was an integral territorial entity of the Spanish Empire, established by Habsburg Spain during the Spanish colonization of the Am ...
(Mexico) and the persecution of Portuguese Jews, the principal traders in
Lima Lima ( ; ), originally founded as Ciudad de Los Reyes (City of The Kings) is the capital and the largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón River, Chillón, Rímac River, Rímac and Lurín Rivers, in the desert zone of t ...
.


Demographics

A census taken by the last Quipucamayoc indicated that there were 12 million inhabitants of Inca Peru; 45 years later, under viceroy Toledo, the census figures amounted to only 1,100,000 Indians. While the attrition was not an organized attempt at
genocide Genocide is the intentional destruction of a people—usually defined as an ethnic, national, racial, or religious group—in whole or in part. Raphael Lemkin coined the term in 1944, combining the Greek word (, "race, people") with the Latin ...
, the results were similar, largely resulting from
smallpox Smallpox was an infectious disease caused by variola virus (often called smallpox virus) which belongs to the genus Orthopoxvirus. The last naturally occurring case was diagnosed in October 1977, and the World Health Organization (WHO) c ...
and other Eurasian diseases to which the natives had no immunity. Inca cities were given Spanish Christian names and rebuilt as Spanish towns, each centered around a
plaza A town square (or square, plaza, public square, city square, urban square, or ''piazza'') is an open public space, commonly found in the heart of a traditional town but not necessarily a true geometric square, used for community gatherings. ...
with a church or cathedral facing an official residence. A few Inca cities like Cuzco retained native masonry for the foundations of their walls. Other Inca sites, like Huanuco Viejo, were abandoned for cities at lower altitudes more hospitable to the Spanish. Viceroy
José de Armendáriz José is a predominantly Spanish and Portuguese form of the given name Joseph. While spelled alike, this name is pronounced differently in each language: Spanish ; Portuguese (or ). In French, the name ''José'', pronounced , is an old vernacul ...
reestablished the system whereby Inca nobles who could prove their ancestry were recognized as hijosdalgos of Castile. This led to a frenzy on the part of the Indigenous nobility to legitimate their status. In the 1790s Viceroy Francisco Gil de Taboada ordered the first official census of the population. The last cargo of black slaves in Peru was landed in 1806. At that time an adult male slave sold for 600 pesos.


Culture

Viceroy Francisco de Borja y Aragón reorganized the
University of San Marcos The National University of San Marcos ( es, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, link=no, UNMSM) is a public research university located in Lima, the capital of Peru. It is considered the most important, recognized and representative educ ...
and Luis Jerónimo Fernández de Cabrera founded two chairs of medicine. In the 1710s, Viceroy
Diego Ladrón de Guevara Doctor Diego Ladrón de Guevara Orozco Calderón (1641 in Cifuentes, Spain – September 9, 1718) was a Roman Catholic bishop and Spanish colonial administrator. From August 30, 1710, to March 2, 1716, he was viceroy of Peru. Before his term as ...
established a chair of anatomy.
Teodoro de Croix Teodoro de Croix (June 20, 1730, Prévoté Castle, near Lille, France – 1792, Madrid) was a Spanish soldier and colonial official in New Spain and Peru. From April 6, 1784 to March 25, 1790 he was viceroy of Peru. Background Teodoro de Croi ...
and Francisco Gil de Taboada founded anatomy centers. In 1810 the medical school of San Fernando was founded. On the death of the Peruvian astronomer Doctor
Francisco Ruiz Lozano Francisco Ruiz Lozano (1607, Oruro, Bolivia, Oruro, Bolivia, Alto Perú—1677, Mexico City) was a Peruvian soldier, astronomer, mathematician and educator. Ruiz Lozano was born in Oruro, Bolivia, Oruro (now in Bolivia). He studied with the J ...
, Viceroy
Melchor Liñán y Cisneros Melchor Liñán y Cisneros (sometimes ''Melchor de Liñán y Cisneros'') (December 19, 1629, Madrid – June 28, 1708, Lima, Peru) was a Roman Catholic prelate who served as Archbishop of Lima (1677–1708), Archbishop of La Plata o Charcas (167 ...
(with the approval of the Crown) gave mathematics a permanent position in the University of San Marcos. Mathematics was attached to the chair of cosmography. Doctor
Juan Ramón Koening ''Juan'' is a given name, the Spanish and Manx versions of ''John''. It is very common in Spain and in other Spanish-speaking communities around the world and in the Philippines, and also (pronounced differently) in the Isle of Man. In Spanish, t ...
, a Belgian by birth, was named to the chair.
/sup>. Viceroy Manuel de Guirior created two new chairs at the university.
Luis Enríquez de Guzmán, 9th Count of Alba de Liste Don Luis Enríquez de Guzmán, 9th Count of Alba de Liste ( es, Don Luis Enríquez de Guzmán, marqués de Villaflor y noveno conde de Alba de Liste ; also sometimes, ''Luis Henríquez de Guzmán, conde de Alba de Aliste'') (born c. 1605) was ...
founded the Naval Academy of the colony. Francisco Gil de Taboada supported the navigation school.
Teodoro de Croix Teodoro de Croix (June 20, 1730, Prévoté Castle, near Lille, France – 1792, Madrid) was a Spanish soldier and colonial official in New Spain and Peru. From April 6, 1784 to March 25, 1790 he was viceroy of Peru. Background Teodoro de Croi ...
began the Botanic Garden of Lima. Francisco de Borja y Aragón also founded, in
Cuzco Cusco, often spelled Cuzco (; qu, Qusqu ()), is a city in Southeastern Peru near the Urubamba Valley of the Andes mountain range. It is the capital of the Cusco Region and of the Cusco Province. The city is the seventh most populous in Peru; ...
, the ''Colegio del Príncipe'' for sons of the Indigenous nobility and the ''Colegio de San Francisco'' for sons of the conquistadors. Manuel de Amat y Juniet founded the Royal College of San Carlos. The first books printed in Peru were produced by
Antonio Ricardo Antonio Ricciardi, better known as Antonio Ricardo (1532 – 1605/1606), was an Italian from Turin who became the first printer in South America and worked in Lima, Peru from 1584 until his death in 1605 or 1606. Biography Antonio Ricciardi wa ...
, a printer from Turin who settled in Lima. Diego de Benavides y de la Cueva built the first theater in Lima. Manuel de Oms y de Santa Pau founded a literary academy in 1709 and promoted weekly literary discussions in the palace that attracted some of Lima's best writers. These included the famous
Criollo Criollo or criolla (Spanish for creole) may refer to: People * Criollo people, a social class in the Spanish race-based colonial caste system (the European descendants) Animals * Criollo duck, a species of duck native to Central and South Ameri ...
scholar
Pedro Peralta y Barnuevo Pedro Peralta y Barnuevo (Lima, 26 November 1663 – 30 April 1743) was an Enlightenment-era Peruvian mathematician, cosmographer, historian, scholar, poet, and astronomer, and was considered a polymath. He was rector of University of San Marcos in ...
and several Indigenous poets. Oms introduced French and Italian fashions in the viceroyalty. The Italian musician Rocco Cerruti (1688–1760) arrived in Peru. Francisco Gil de Taboada supported the foundation of the newspaper '' El Mercurio Peruano'' in 1791 and founded the Academy of Fine Arts. Jesuit
Barnabé de Cobo Barnabé is both a surname and a given name. Notable people with the name include: Persons *Arrigo Barnabé (born 1951), Brazilian musician and an actor *Barnabé Brisson (1531–1591), French jurist and politician * Barnabé Brisson (engineer) (1 ...
(1582–1657), who explored Mexico and Peru, brought the cinchona bark from Lima to Spain in 1632, and afterwards to Rome and other parts of Italy. In 1671,
Rose of Lima Rose of Lima (born Isabel Flores de Oliva; 20 April 1586 24 August 1617) was a member of the Third Order of Saint Dominic in Lima, Peru, who became known for both her life of severe penance and her care of the poverty stricken of the city thro ...
was canonized by
Pope Clement X Pope Clement X ( la, Clemens X; it, Clemente X; 13 July 1590 – 22 July 1676), born Emilio Bonaventura Altieri, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 29 April 1670 to his death in July 1676. Elected pope at ag ...
. Rose was the first native-born American to become a Catholic saint.
Pope Benedict XIII Pope Benedict XIII ( la, Benedictus XIII; it, Benedetto XIII; 2 February 1649 – 21 February 1730), born Pietro Francesco Orsini and later called Vincenzo Maria Orsini, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 29 May ...
elevated another two important Peruvian saints,
Toribio Alfonso de Mogrovejo Toribio Alfonso de Mogrovejo (16 November 1538 – 23 March 1606) was a Spanish prelate of the Catholic Church who served as the Archbishop of Lima from 1579 until his death. He first studied in the humanities and law before serving as a profess ...
and Francisco de Solano. Diego Quispe Tito was a famous artist before the age of Independence.


Science

In 1737
Jorge Juan y Santacilia Jorge Juan y Santacilia (Novelda, Alicante, 5 January 1713 – Madrid, 21 June 1773) was a Spanish mathematician, scientist, naval officer, and mariner. He determined that the Earth is not perfectly spherical but is oblate, i.e. flattened at the ...
and
Antonio de Ulloa Antonio de Ulloa y de la Torre-Giralt, FRS, FRSA, KOS (12 January 1716 – 3 July 1795) was a Spanish naval officer, scientist, and administrator. At the age of nineteen, he joined the French Geodesic Mission to what is now the country o ...
, Spanish scientists sent by the
French Academy French (french: français(e), link=no) may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to France ** French language, which originated in France, and its various dialects and accents ** French people, a nation and ethnic group identified with Franc ...
on a scientific mission to measure a degree of
meridian arc In geodesy and navigation, a meridian arc is the curve between two points on the Earth's surface having the same longitude. The term may refer either to a segment of the meridian, or to its length. The purpose of measuring meridian arcs is to de ...
at the equator, arrived in the colony. They also had the mission of reporting on disorganization and corruption in the government and smuggling. Their report was published later, under the title ''Noticias Secretas de América'' ('' Secret News From America''). Manuel de Guirior assisted the scientific expedition of
Hipólito Ruiz López Hipólito Ruiz López (August 8, 1754 in Belorado, Burgos, Spain – 1816 in Madrid), or Hipólito Ruiz, was a Spanish botanist known for researching the floras of Peru and Chile during an expedition under Carlos III from 1777 to 1788. During t ...
,
José Antonio Pavón José is a predominantly Spanish and Portuguese form of the given name Joseph. While spelled alike, this name is pronounced differently in each language: Spanish ; Portuguese (or ). In French, the name ''José'', pronounced , is an old vernacul ...
and
Joseph Dombey Joseph Dombey (Mâcon, France, 20 February 1742 – Montserrat, West Indies, May 1794) was a French botanist. He was involved in the "Dombey affair" which was precipitated by British seizure of a vessel his collections were on and diversion of th ...
, sent to study the flora of the viceroyalty. The expedition lasted from 1777 to 1788. Their findings were later published as ''La flora peruana y chilena'' (''The Flora of Peru and Chile''). Again a major concern was stimulating the economy, which Guirior did by adopting liberal measures in agriculture, mining, commerce and industry. Another French influence on science in the colony was
Louis Godin Louis Godin (28 February 1704 – 11 September 1760) was a French astronomer and member of the French Academy of Sciences. He worked in Peru, Spain, Portugal and France. Biography Godin was born in Paris; his parents were François Godin and Eli ...
, another member of the meridian expedition. He was appointed ''cosmógrafo mayor'' by Viceroy Mendoza.
The duties of ''cosmógrafo mayor'' included publishing almanacs and sailing instructions. Another French scientist in Peru at this time was
Charles Marie de La Condamine Charles Marie de La Condamine (28 January 1701 – 4 February 1774) was a French explorer, geographer, and mathematician. He spent ten years in territory which is now Ecuador, measuring the length of a degree of latitude at the equator and prepar ...
. The Balmis Expedition arrived in Lima on May 23, 1806. At the same time these viceroys adopted rigorous measures to suppress the thought of the Encyclopedists and revolutionaries in the United States and France.


See also

*
History of Peru The history of Peru spans 10 millennia, extending back through several stages of cultural development along the country's desert coastline and in the Andes mountains. Peru's coast was home to the Norte Chico civilization, the oldest civilization i ...
*
Peruvian Viceroyal architecture The Peruvian colonial architecture, developed in the Viceroyalty of Peru between the 16th and 19th centuries, was characterized by the importation and adaptation of European architectural styles to the Peruvian reality, yielding an original archite ...
*
Inca architecture Inca architecture is the most significant pre-Columbian architecture in South America. The Incas inherited an architectural legacy from Tiwanaku, founded in the 2nd century B.C.E. in present-day Bolivia. A core characteristic of the architectur ...
*
Colonialism Colonialism is a practice or policy of control by one people or power over other people or areas, often by establishing colonies and generally with the aim of economic dominance. In the process of colonisation, colonisers may impose their relig ...
*
List of Viceroys of Peru The viceroys of Peru ruled the Viceroyalty of Peru from 1544 to 1824 in the name of the monarch of Spain. The territories under ''de jure'' rule by the viceroys included in the 16th and 17th century almost all of South America except eastern Brazi ...
*
Spanish conquest of the Muisca The Spanish conquest of the Muisca took place from 1537 to 1540. The Muisca were the inhabitants of the central Andean highlands of Colombia before the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors. They were organised in a loose confederation of differe ...
*
Spanish colonization of the Americas Spain began colonizing the Americas under the Crown of Castile and was spearheaded by the Spanish . The Americas were invaded and incorporated into the Spanish Empire, with the exception of Brazil, British America, and some small regions ...
*
Spanish Empire The Spanish Empire ( es, link=no, Imperio español), also known as the Hispanic Monarchy ( es, link=no, Monarquía Hispánica) or the Catholic Monarchy ( es, link=no, Monarquía Católica) was a colonial empire governed by Spain and its prede ...
*
Viceroyalty of New Spain New Spain, officially the Viceroyalty of New Spain ( es, Virreinato de Nueva España, ), or Kingdom of New Spain, was an integral territorial entity of the Spanish Empire, established by Habsburg Spain during the Spanish colonization of the Amer ...
*
Kuraka A ''kuraka'' (Quechua for the principal governor of a province or a communal authority in the Tawantinsuyu), or curaca (hispanicized spelling), was an official of the Inca Empire who held the role of magistrate, about four levels down from the Sa ...
*
Criollo people In Hispanic America, criollo () is a term used originally to describe people of Spanish descent born in the colonies. In different Latin American countries the word has come to have different meanings, sometimes referring to the local-born majo ...


Notes


References


Further reading


Conquest

*Cieza de León, Pedro de. ''The Discovery and Conquest of Peru: Chronicles of the New World Encounter''. Ed. and trans., Alexandra Parma Cook and David Noble Cook. Durham: Duke University Press 1998. *Hemming, John. ''The Conquest of the Incas''. New York: Harcourt Brace Janovich, 1970. *Lockhart, James. ''The men of Cajamarca; a social and biographical study of the first conquerors of Peru'', Austin, Published for the Institute of Latin American Studies by the University of Texas Press
972 Year 972 ( CMLXXII) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. Events By place Byzantine Empire * Spring – Emperor John I Tzimiskes divides the Bulgarian territories, recent ...
*Yupanqui, Titu Cusi. ''An Inca Account of the Conquest of Peru''. Trans. Ralph Bauer. Boulder: University Press of Colorado 2005.


Colonial

* Andrien, Kenneth J. ''Crisis and Decline: The Viceroyalty of Peru in the Seventeenth Century''. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1985. * Andrien, Kenneth. ''The Kingdom of Quito, 16990-1830: The State and Regional Development''. New York: Cambridge University Press 1995. * Andrien, Kenneth J. ''Andean Worlds: Indigenous History, Culture, and Consciousness under Spanish Rule, 1532-1825''. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 2001. * Bakewell, Peter J. ''Silver and Entrepreneurship in Seventeenth-Century Potosí: The Life and times of Antonio López de Quiroga''. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1988. * Baker, Geoffrey. ''Imposing Harmony: Music and Society in Colonial Cuzco''. Durham: Duke University Press 2008. * Bowser, Frederick P. ''The African Slave in Colonial Peru, 1524-1650''. Stanford: Stanford University Press 1973. * Bradley, Peter T. ''Society, Economy, and Defence in Seventeenth-Century Peru: The Administration of the Count of Alba de Liste (1655-61)''. Liverpool: Institute of Latin American Studies, University of Liverpool 1992. * Bradley, Peter T. ''The Lure of Peru: Maritime Intrusion into the South Sea, 1598-1701''. New York: St Martin's Press 1989. * Burns, Kathryn. ''Colonial Habits: Convents and the Spiritual Economy of Cuzco, Peru'' (1999), on the crucial role that convents played in the Andean economy as lenders and landlords; nuns exercised economic & spiritual power. *Cahill, David. ''From Rebellion to Independence in the Andes: Soundings from Southern Peru, 1750-1830''. Amsterdam: Aksant 2002. *Chambers, Sarah C. ''From Subjects to Citizens: Honor, Gender, and Politics in Arequipa, Peru, 1780-1854''. University Park: Penn State Press 1999. *Charnay, Paul. ''Indian Society in the Valley of Lima, Peru, 1532-1824''. Blue Ridge Summit: University Press of America 2001. * Clayton, Lawrence A. ''Caulkers and Carpenters in a New World: The Shipyards of Colonial Guayaquil''. Ohio University Press 1980. * Dean, Carolyn. ''Inka Bodies and the Body of Christ: Corpus Christi in Colonial Cuzco, Peru''. Durham: Duke University Press 1999. * Fisher, John. ''Bourbon Peru, 1750-1824''. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press 2003. * Fisher, John R., Allan J. Kuethe, and Anthony McFarlane, eds. ''Reform and Insurrection in Bourbon New Granada and Peru''. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press 2003. * Gauderman, Kimberly. ''Women's Lives in Colonial Quito: Gender, Law, and Economy in Spanish America''. Austin: University of Texas Press 2003. * Garrett, David T. ''Shadows of Empire: The Indian Nobility of Cusco, 1750-1825''. New York: Cambridge University Press 2005. * Griffiths, Nicholas. ''The Cross and the Serpent: Religious Repression and Resurgence in Colonial Peru''. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1996. * Hyland, Sabine. ''The Jesuit and the Incas: The Extraordinary Life of Padre Blas Valera, S.J.'' Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press 2003. * Jacobsen, Nils. ''Mirages of Transition: The Peruvian Altiplano, 1780-1930'' (1996) * Lamana, Gonzalo. ''Domination Without Dominance: Inca-Spanish Relations in Early Colonial Peru''. Durham: Duke University Press 2008. * Lane, Kris. ''Quito 1599: City and Colony in Transition''. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 2002. * Lockhart, James. ''Spanish Peru, 1532-1560: A Social History'' (1968), a detailed portrait of the social and economic lives of the first generation of Spanish settlers in Peru & the development of Spanish colonial society in the generation after conquest * Mangan, Jane E. ''Trading Roles: Gender, Ethnicity, and the Urban Economy in Colonial Potosí''. Durham: Duke University Press 2005. * Marks, Patricia. ''Deconstructing Legitimacy: Viceroys, Merchants, and the Military in Late Colonial Peru''. University Park: Penn State Press 2007. * Means, Philip Ainsworth. ''Fall of the Inca Empire and the Spanish Rule in Peru: 1530-1780'' (1933) * Miller, Robert Ryal, ed. ''Chronicle of Colonial Lima: The Diary of Joseph and Francisco Mugaburu, 1640-1697''. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1975. * Mills, Kenneth. ''Idolatry and Its Enemies: Colonial Andean Religion and Extirpation, 1640-1750''. Princeton: Princeton University Press 1997. * Milton, Cynthia E. ''The Many Meanings of Poverty: Colonialism, Social Compacts, and Assistance in Eighteenth-Century Ecuador''. Stanford: Stanford University Press 2007. * Minchom, Martin. ''The People of Quito, 1690-1810: Change and Unrest in the Underclass''. Boulder: Westview Press 1994. * Osorio, Alejandra B. ''Inventing Lima: Baroque Modernity in Peru's South Sea Metropolis''. New York: Palgrave 2008. * Phelan, John Leddy, ''The Kingdom of Quito in the Seventeenth-Century''. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press 1967, * Poma de Ayala, Felipe Guaman, ''The First New Chronicle and Good Government: On the History of the World and the Incas up to 1615''. Ed. and trans. Roland Hamilton. Austin: University of Texas Press 2009. * Premo, Bianca. ''Children of the Father King: Youth, Authority, and Legal Minority in Colonial Lima''. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press 2005. * Ramírez, Susan Elizabeth. ''The World Turned Upside Down: Cross-Cultural Contact and Conflict in Sixteenth-Century Peru''. Stanford: Stanford University Press 1996. * Serulnikov, Sergio. ''Subverting Colonial Authority: Challenges to Spanish Rule in Eighteenth-Century Southern Andes''. Durham: Duke University Press 2003. * Spalding, Karen. ''Huarochirí: An Andean Society Under Inca and Spanish Rule''. Stanford: Stanford University Press 1984. * Stavig, Ward. ''The World of Tupac Amaru: Conflict, Community, and Identity in Colonial Peru'' (1999), an ethnohistory that examines the lives of Andean Indians, including diet, marriage customs, labor classifications, taxation, and the administration of justice, in the eighteenth century. * Tandeter, Enrique. ''Coercion and Market: Silver Mining in Colonial Potosí, 1692-1826''. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1993. *TePaske, John J., ed. and trans. ''Discourse and Political Reflections on the Kingdom of Peru by Jorge Juan and Antonio Ulloa''. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1978. *Thomson, Sinclair. ''We Alone Will Rule: Native Andean Politics in the Age of Insurgency''. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press 2003. * Van Deusen, Nancy E. ''Between the Sacred and the Worldly: the Institutional and Cultural Practice of Recogimiento in Colonial Lima''. Stanford: Stanford University Press 2001. * Varón Gabai, Rafael. ''Francisco Pizarro and His Brothers: The Illusion of Power in Sixteenth-Century Peru''. Trans. by Javier Flores Espinosa. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1997. * Walker, Charles F. ''Shaky Colonialism: The 1746 Earthquake-Tsunami in Lima, Peru, and Its Long Aftermath''Stay (2008) * Wightman, Ann M. ''Indigenous Migration and Social Change: The Forasteros of Cuzco, 1570-1720''. Durham: Duke University Press 1990.


External links


Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries.org: "The colonial Andes: tapestries and silverwork, 1530-1830"
— ''exhibition catalog with info on the Viceroyalty of Peru (available online as PDF)''. {{Authority control
Peru , image_flag = Flag of Peru.svg , image_coat = Escudo nacional del Perú.svg , other_symbol = Great Seal of the State , other_symbol_type = Seal (emblem), National seal , national_motto = "Fi ...
Captaincy General of Chile Colonial Colombia Former colonies in South America History of Peru Spanish colonization of the Americas 16th century in Peru 17th century in Peru 18th century in Peru 1800s in Peru 1810s in Peru 1820s in Peru States and territories established in 1542 States and territories disestablished in 1824 Titles of nobility in the Americas 1542 establishments in the Viceroyalty of Peru 1824 disestablishments in the Viceroyalty of Peru Spanish-speaking countries and territories