Southern Sierra Miwok (also known as Meewoc, Mewoc, Me-Wuk, Miwoc, Miwokan, Mokélumne, Moquelumnan, San Raphael, Talatui, Talutui, and Yosemite) is a
Utian language spoken by the Native American people called the
Southern Sierra Miwok of
Northern California
Northern California (colloquially known as NorCal) is a geographic and cultural region that generally comprises the northern portion of the U.S. state of California. Spanning the state's northernmost 48 counties, its main population centers incl ...
. Southern Sierra Miwok is a member of the Miwok language family along with
Lake Miwok
The Lake Miwok are a branch of the Miwok, a Native American people of Northern California. The Lake Miwok lived in the Clear Lake basin of what is now called Lake County.
Culture
The Lake Miwok spoke their own Lake language in the Utian lin ...
,
Coast Miwok
Coast Miwok are an indigenous people that was the second-largest group of Miwok people. Coast Miwok inhabited the general area of modern Marin County and southern Sonoma County in Northern California, from the Golden Gate north to Duncans Point ...
(extinct),
Saclan
The Saklan are a tribe of the Native American Miwok community, based just south of San Pablo and Suisun Bays, in Contra Costa County, California. Their historical tribal lands ranged from Moraga, to San Leandro Creek, to Lafayette.
History
Th ...
(extinct),
Plains Miwok
The Plains and Sierra Miwok were once the largest group of California Indian Miwok people, indigenous to California. Their homeland included regions of the Sacramento Valley, San Joaquin Valley, and the Sierra Nevada.
Geography
The Plains an ...
(extinct),
Northern Sierra Miwok
Northern Sierra Miwok is a Miwok language spoken in California
California is a state in the Western United States, located along the Pacific Coast. With nearly 39.2million residents across a total area of approximately , it is the most ...
and
Central Sierra Miwok
Central Sierra Miwok is a Miwok language spoken in California, in the upper Stanislaus and Tuolumne valleys. Today it is spoken by the Chicken Ranch Rancheria of Me-Wuk Indians of California, a federally recognized tribe of Central Sierra Miwok ...
. The Miwok languages are a part of the larger
Penutian language stock. The original territory of the Southern Sierra Miwok people is similar to modern day
Mariposa County, California
Mariposa County () is a county in the U.S. state of California. As of the 2020 U.S. Census, the population was 17,131. The county seat is Mariposa. It is located in the western foothills of the Sierra Nevada mountains, north of Fresno, east of ...
. The Southern Sierra Miwok language is nearly extinct with only a few speakers existing today.
[Golla, Victor. California Indian Languages. Berkeley: University of California, 2011. Print.] However, as of 2012, an active revitalization program is underway.
The name ''Miwok'' comes from the Sierra Miwok word ''miwwik'' meaning "people" or "Indians". It was originally used in 1877 for the Plains and Sierra Miwok people, but was later reassigned to its current usage in 1908 to describe the set of Utian languages distinct from the western
Coastanoan (Ohlone) languages.
Phonology
Consonants
Below are the 15 consonants of the Southern Sierra Miwok written in IPA (the common orthography is noted within
):
There is considerable variation within the phonemes listed in the chart above. For example, the following allophones are in free variation with each other intervocalically and proceeding voiced consonants:
: ( ~ ~ )
: ( ~ ~ )
: ( ~ )
: ( ~ ~ )
Also, is in free variation with only in intervocalic environments. is slightly postvelar when it occurs before or , and in these situations it is often written . When positioned intervocalically or after voiced consonants there is free variation between the velar and slightly postvelar variants of the following sounds: ( ~ ~ ). Lastly, the following phonemes only occur in English loan words: .
Vowels
Below are the long and short variants of the 6 vowels of the Southern Sierra Miwok language written in IPA (the common orthography is noted within ):
are highest when long, as shown in the chart above. However, is also high before and . is at its lowest before and while is lowest only before . is slightly lower before , but, along with and , is lowest before , and , with pronounced at approximately . Also, is slightly backed before . acts the most differently compared to the other vowels as it is backed to when long and is slightly fronted before and and both fronted and raised before and .
Length
Since vowel and consonant length is contrastive, length (represented as is considered to be a separate (archi-)phoneme.)
Syllable Structure
There are two types of syllables in Southern Sierra Miwok:
light
Light or visible light is electromagnetic radiation that can be perceived by the human eye. Visible light is usually defined as having wavelengths in the range of 400–700 nanometres (nm), corresponding to frequencies of 750–420 tera ...
, CV, and heavy, CV: or CVC. In each word, one of the first two syllables is always heavy, so therefore every Southern Sierra Miwok word contains at least one heavy syllable. Because of this preference towards heavy syllables,
consonant cluster
In linguistics, a consonant cluster, consonant sequence or consonant compound, is a group of consonants which have no intervening vowel. In English, for example, the groups and are consonant clusters in the word ''splits''. In the education fie ...
s are usually separated to form
codas of preceding syllables.
Stress
Southern Sierra Miwok uses the following three
stress
Stress may refer to:
Science and medicine
* Stress (biology), an organism's response to a stressor such as an environmental condition
* Stress (linguistics), relative emphasis or prominence given to a syllable in a word, or to a word in a phrase ...
levels:
*
Primary Stress
In linguistics, and particularly phonology, stress or accent is the relative emphasis or prominence given to a certain syllable in a word or to a certain word in a phrase or sentence. That emphasis is typically caused by such properties as i ...
- This falls on the first heavy syllable in any word. Furthermore, the coda of this syllable is usually pronounced for a greater length of time than is normal in other syllables.
*Secondary Stress- This stress falls on any heavy syllables succeeding the primary stressed syllable. In the event of a long sequence of heavy syllables, the
trochee
In English poetic metre and modern linguistics, a trochee () is a metrical foot consisting of a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed one. But in Latin and Ancient Greek poetic metre, a trochee is a heavy syllable followed by a light one (al ...
stress system is adopted.
*Weak Stress- This falls on all light syllables.
Morphology
Every Southern Sierra Miwok word consists of a root and (usually) one to two suffixes. Below are definitions of common terms used to describe the basic structure of a Southern Sierra Miwok word:
*Stem = (root) + (1 optional suffix)
*Base = (root) + (at least 1 suffix)
*
Theme
Theme or themes may refer to:
* Theme (arts), the unifying subject or idea of the type of visual work
* Theme (Byzantine district), an administrative district in the Byzantine Empire governed by a Strategos
* Theme (computing), a custom graphical ...
= (base) + (modal suffix) OR (stem type) OR (
allomorph
In linguistics, an allomorph is a variant phonetic form of a morpheme, or, a unit of meaning that varies in sound and spelling without changing the meaning. The term ''allomorph'' describes the realization of phonological variations for a specif ...
of a root)
*Word = (theme) + (final suffix) + (optional postfix)
Morphophonemics
Below is a list of frequently occurring
morphophonemic
Morphophonology (also morphophonemics or morphonology) is the branch of linguistics that studies the interaction between morphology (linguistics), morphological and phonology, phonological or phonetic processes. Its chief focus is the sound chan ...
rules which
Broadbent (1964) defines as "a rule of phonologically conditioned variation which applies to all morphemes, or allomorphs, of suitable morphophonemic shape.".
*The morphophonemic sequence /ij/ is pronounced as /i:/.
*The morphophoneme /H/ is pronounced as /:/ ~ /Ø/.
**zero /Ø/ occurs when followed by one consonant that is followed by any type of juncture, or if it is preceded by a consonant cluster.
**length /:/ occurs elsewhere.
*The morphophoneme /X/ is also pronounced as /:/ ~ /Ø/.
**length /:/ occurs between a vowel and a single consonant, but lengthens the following consonant e.g. VXCV is pronounced as VCCV
**zero /Ø/ occurs elsewhere.
*The morphophoneme /Y/ is pronounced as /ɨ/ ~ /u/ ~/o/.
**if the preceding vowel is /u/, /Y/ is pronounced as /u/.
**if the preceding vowel is /o/, /Y/ is pronounced as either /u/ or /o/.
**/Y:/ is pronounced as /u:/.
**/Y/ is pronounced as /ɨ/ elsewhere.
Verbal Themes
Verbal Themes are
morpheme
A morpheme is the smallest meaningful Constituent (linguistics), constituent of a linguistic expression. The field of linguistics, linguistic study dedicated to morphemes is called morphology (linguistics), morphology.
In English, morphemes are ...
sequences followed immediately by pronominal (final) suffixes.
*
Present Imperfect Indicative (-Ø-),
''final suffix[theme[base ''hɨwa:''-''t''''Ø''">''theme[base_''hɨwa:''-''t''.html" ;"title="''final suffix[theme[base ''hɨwa:''-''t''">''final suffix[theme[base ''hɨwa:''-''t''''Ø''''ma:''] ''hɨwa:tma:'' "I am running"
*Perfective aspect, Present Perfect Indicative (-ak-), /k/ is deleted if the final suffix is length /-:/. Below is a discussion of the various allomorphs of (-ak-):
**/-ak-/ ~ /-a-/: occurs if the base ends in any consonant e.g.
''final suffix[theme[base ''hɨwa:''-''t''''ak''">''theme[base_''hɨwa:''-''t''.html" ;"title="''final suffix[theme[base ''hɨwa:''-''t''">''final suffix[theme[base ''hɨwa:''-''t''''ak''Ø] ''hɨwa:tak'' "I ran just now"
**/-nak-/ ~ /-na-/: occurs if the base ends in any short vowel e.g. ''ʔenpu-nak-muhme:'' "you chased us"
**/-hak-/ ~ /-ha-/: occurs if the base ends in any long vowel e.g. ''noʧu:-ha-:'' "he cried"
*
Present Imperative (-eH-). Below is a discussion of the various allomorphs of (-eH-):
**/-ni-/ ~ (/-n-/ ~ /-X-/): occurs after the following verbal suffixes, /-jikk-/, /-na-/ benefactive, /-na-/ causative, /-nY-/, /-nHukku-/ causative.
**/-X-/: occurs after suffixes /-:hi-/, /-jo-/, /-lo-/, /-po-/, /-ehi-/ and /-wo-/ e.g. ''kal-jo-X-ʔ'' "kick him!"
**/-Ø-/: occurs between suffixes /-:hi-/ and /-muhme:-/, after /-ŋHe-/, after /-tkuH-/ and after the following irregular verb bases /ʔuhhuH-/ "to drink", /ʔɨwwɨH-/ "to eat", /ʔuʧʧuH-/ "to stay", /wɨH-/ "to go", /kottoH-/ "to go on ahead" and /talliH-/ "to arise e.g. ''wɨH-Ø-ti:'' "let's go!"
**/-koX-/: occurs after bases ending in vowels and the allomorph /-k-/ of the verbal suffix
ksY-**/-eH-/: occurs elsewhere e.g.
''final suffix[theme[base ''hɨwa:''-''t''''eH''">''theme[base_''hɨwa:''-''t''.html" ;"title="''final suffix[theme[base ''hɨwa:''-''t''">''final suffix[theme[base ''hɨwa:''-''t''''eH''''ʔ''] ''hɨwa:teʔ'' "run!"
Below is a chart of allomorphs of common Southern Sierra Miwok irregular verbal bases.
:
Verbal Suffixes
Verbal suffixes occur before the verbal theme and, along with the root, form the base of the word. Southern Sierra Miwok has many verbal suffixes, most of which are fully productive and can be applied to any stem of an appropriate shape, class and meaning. Verbal suffixes have
derivational meanings. Furthermore, each verbal suffix has rules and requirements as to the shape of the stem that it can follow e.g. the suffix /-cc-/ "static" must follow a stem that is shaped CV- or CVCV- or CVCVCV-. In the instance that a stem does not end in the appropriate form, either length /:/ or a glottal stop /ʔ/ will be added where a consonant is needed or /Y/ when a vowel is needed.
Also, many suffixes display allomorphy depending on the following modal suffix. In these cases, the suffix spoken before the present imperfect zero suffix /-Ø-/ is treated as the basic form. Lastly, two or more verbal suffixes often appear in the same word. Usually, the morphemes are ordered by immediate constituency, however, they can also be ordered depending on the stem-shape requirements of the last two suffixes of the base. In addition, some suffix combinations have separate stem requirements unlike if the suffixes were to appear alone. Below is an example of a typical verbal suffix:
*/-mhi-/, reciprocal. This is a fully productive suffix that can follow any stem but appears as /-mh-/ before the present perfect and imperative modal suffixes. The following present perfect form is either /-ak-/ or /-a-/ and the imperative is /-eH-/.
**''ʔammymhi'' "to exchange gifts"
**''hywa:tymhe:ti:'' "let's run a race!"
**''ʔelŋemhappu:'' "they have left each other"
Nominal Themes
Nominal themes refer to theme suffixes that are followed directly by case markings or by Series 1 or 2 pronominal suffixes (see Syntax) before the case marker. These themes can be hard for native English speakers to learn as many of them do not translate to English nouns but can be translated as past or future tense English verbs or verbal phrases. However, most forms which translate to English nouns, adverbs and adjectives are included as nominal themes. The three categories of nominal themes are:
*Class 1: nominal themes which are always followed by Series 1 pronominal suffixes
**These themes usually correspond to English verbal expressions such as ''ʔenpu-ni-'' “can chase”
*Class 2: nominal themes which are always followed by Series 2 pronominal suffixes
**Similar to class 1 nominal themes, these also usually correspond to English verbal expressions
*Class 3: nominal themes which can be followed by either Series 1 or Series 2 pronominal suffixes (with differences of meaning) or that are followed by case marking alone.
**This is the largest class and includes all monomorphemic nominal themes such as ''neH'' “this” and ''hawakkac'' “sucker fish” and are typically translated as English nouns, adjectives or adverbs. When class 3 nominal themes are followed by Series 1 pronominal suffixes, they take on a possessive meaning (i.e. my dog) but when they are followed by Series 2 pronominal suffixes, they generally take on a subject-predicate construction (i.e. I am a chief).
Independent Personal Pronouns
Southern Sierra Miwok does not require the use of independent personal pronouns. Instead, they are used in the nominative and accusative cases for emphasis and clarification, their roots are as follows:
Demonstrative Roots
The following three demonstrative roots are class 3 nominal themes and are among the shortest roots in the language. They can be followed by a number of different suffixes and usually change considerably in meaning according to the attached suffix, they are:
*/neH-/ “this;here”: This theme refers to a location near the speaker. Occasionally, /neH-/ is found followed by a case suffix or the postfix ''ʔok''. In this instance, it can replace the third person singular independent pronoun. However, unlike an independent personal pronoun, it can also be followed by the instrumental case. Furthermore, when followed by the ablative, allative or locative case, /neH-/ usually means “(from, to or at) this place, here”. The following are some possible combinations using /neH-/:
**''neH-wi-n'' “uphill”
**''ne-pu-ksY-'' “this is the way it is”
*/ʔi-/ “that;there”: This theme refers to a location far away from the location of the speaker. /ʔi-/, like /neH-/, can also replace a third person pronoun, and when it is followed by the ablative, allative or locative cases it usually means “(from, to or at) this place, there”. The following are some possible combinations using /ʔi-/:
**''ʔi-cc'' “to do that; to choose that one; to mean”
**''ʔi-wwi-n'' “now”
**''ʔi-ni-(case) '' “that one”
*/mi-/ “what?”: This theme occurs with an “information, please” meaning. The following are some possible combinations using /mi-/:
**''mi-taH-n'' “when?”
**''mi-nni'' “where?”
**''mitokho'' “how many?”
Nominal Suffixes
Nominal suffixes are similar to verbal suffixes in that each suffix requires a particular stem shape to precede it and if there is not a necessary vowel or consonant before the suffix, /Y/ or /ʔ/ is added. Furthermore, some nominal suffixes are productive while others are not. Nominal suffixes also tend to have fewer allomorphs than verbal suffixes. Lastly, nominal themes may occur either word-medially or in the prefinal position before case or Series 1 or 2 pronominal suffixes. However, many follow class 3 nominal themes. Below is an example of a typical nominal suffix:
*/-kuH-/, evidential passive predicative. This suffix follows stem form CVCVC-, and when necessary, the final C is filled by /ʔ/. The themes that end in this suffix are members of class 3. /-kuH-/is fully productive.
**''lacyn-kuH-'' "blaze"
**''kuhat-kuH-'' "you can see it has been hit"
**''wemyʔ-kuH-'' "there’s a hole, you can see it has been dug"
Postfixes
These affixes follow final suffixes such as pronominal suffixes and case, and are not obligatory. Furthermore, more than one postfix may occur in a Southern Sierra Miwok word. In these instances, the postfixes occur in a definite sequence. In addition, all postfixes are invariable in form and therefore do not contain more than one allomorph. Below is an example of a typical postfix:
*/-hoʔ/ “and”. This postfix can follow verbs and nouns and can be found both in narrative texts and in conversation.
**''neH-Ø-t-hoʔ ʔi-ni-t-Ø-hoʔ'' “here and there”
Particles
Southern Sierra Miwok also has a class of monomorphemic words called particles. These are the only words that can stand alone as roots without suffixes and usually follow the word that they modify. ''hane:'' "maybe", ''hy:ʔy:'' "yes" and ''jej'' "hey!"
are a few examples of typical particles.
Syntax
Personal Pronominal Suffixes
Personal pronominal suffixes are separated into four series in the Southern Sierra Miwok language. As discussed in the morphology section, Series 1 and 2 pronominal suffixes follow nominal themes and precede case markings, whereas Series 3 and 4 pronominal suffixes follow verbal themes. Series 3 and 4 are also more complex as they distinguish first person inclusive (speaker + addressee) and exclusive (speaker only). Furthermore, pronominal suffixes can refer to both the subject and the object of the sentence; these are called double pronominal suffixes. However, the subject cannot be included in the object and vice versa i.e. "I am doing it for you" is an acceptable phrase to use a double pronominal suffix, but, "I am doing it for us" is not acceptable because "I" is included in "us/we". The following table expresses the personal pronominal suffixes of Southern Sierra Miwok for singular subjects:
The following table expresses personal pronominal suffixes for plural subjects in Southern Sierra Miwok:
Below is a table that lists the various pronominal suffix morphemes for Southern Sierra Miwok organized by series number:
Case Marking
Southern Sierra Miwok is unique among Native American languages as it has nine
case suffixes. For the purposes of discussion, Broadbent (1964) has separated the case suffixes into two categories, autonomous, which appear in the absolute final position of a word, and subordinate, which must be followed by an autonomous case suffix. Of these, four are considered autonomous, four are considered subordinate and one, the possessive (or genitive) case, can function as either autonomous or subordinate. Furthermore, the names given to each case suffix do not necessarily reflect the full range of their applications from the point of view of their
Latin grammar
Latin is a heavily inflected languages, inflected language with largely free word order. Nouns are inflected for grammatical number, number and grammatical case, case; pronouns and adjectives (including participles) are inflected for number, cas ...
counterparts. For example, the accusative case is mostly but not exclusively used for direct objects of a particular sentence.
Autonomous
*
Nominative case
In grammar, the nominative case (abbreviated ), subjective case, straight case or upright case is one of the grammatical cases of a noun or other part of speech, which generally marks the subject of a verb or (in Latin and formal variants of Engl ...
: This case is found in a variety of environments such as on the subjects of verbs, on forms which modify subjects of verbs, on nouns in isolation, in predicative or coordinate constructions involving nouns, and as the autonomous case where a subordinate case suffix is used. The suffix varies between /-Ø/, when the preceding morpheme ends in any consonant other that /H/, and /-ʔ/ elsewhere. The following are examples of common nominative case usages:
**''naŋŋaH-ʔ'' "the man"
**''naŋŋaH-ʔ cytyH-ʔ'' "the good man; the man is good"
**''hissik-Ø'' "the skunk"
**''lakyhee-Ø-ʔ'' "he came out"
*
Accusative case
The accusative case (abbreviated ) of a noun is the grammatical case used to mark the direct object of a transitive verb.
In the English language, the only words that occur in the accusative case are pronouns: 'me,' 'him,' 'her,' 'us,' and ‘the ...
: This case is found on
direct objects of sentences unless it is in a sentence with both direct and indirect objects in which case the accusative suffix falls on the indirect object and the instrumental case is used for the direct object. Furthermore, after certain types of nominal themes, the accusative case has a temporal meaning, "after", "while" or "during". The accusative case has the form /-j/ and is preceded by /Y/ when it follows a theme ending in any consonant other than /H/. The following are examples of common accusative case usages:
**''hukkuHjhu:'' "his head (accusative)"
**''kawlypaj'' "all morning"
**''henissemej'' "after we rested"
*
Temporal case: This case is usually found following the nominal suffix /-no-/ "time, season" and is often used on Southern Sierra Miwok words that translate into English adverbs referencing time, but is also used in other words meaning "higher" and "slowly". Although the meaning is somewhat obscure, it mostly references location in time or space. The temporal case has the suffix form /-n/. The following are examples of common temporal case usages:
**''hojeHnon'' "tomorrow"
**''kottaHn'' "far off"
*
Vocative case
In grammar, the vocative case (abbreviated ) is a grammatical case which is used for a noun that identifies a person (animal, object, etc.) being addressed, or occasionally for the noun modifiers ( determiners, adjectives, participles, and num ...
: This case is used only in forms used as terms of address. The suffix is /-Ø/ when following a consonant and /-:/ elsewhere. The following are examples of common vocative case usages:
**''ʔypyH-:'' "Father!"
**''ʔyta-:'' "Mother!"
**''hissik-Ø'' "Skunk!"
Subordinate
*
Ablative case
In grammar, the ablative case (pronounced ; sometimes abbreviated ) is a grammatical case for nouns, pronouns, and adjectives in the grammars of various languages; it is sometimes used to express motion away from something, among other uses. T ...
: This case carries the meaning of "from" or "away from". When following a vowel or the cluster /VH/, the ablative allomorph /-mm-/ is used, but when following any consonant other than /H/ the allomorph /-m-/ is used. The ablative case is usually followed by the nominative case but can also be followed by the accusative or by the prefinal nominal suffix /-ttY-/. The following are example of common vocative case usages:
**''ʔuucu-mm-uʔ'' "from the house"
**''ʔuucu-mm-ʔhY:'' "from his house"
**''wakal-m-ttiʔ'' "from our creek"
*
Allative case
In grammar, the allative case (; abbreviated ; from Latin ''allāt-'', ''afferre'' "to bring to") is a type of locative grammatical case. The term allative is generally used for the lative case in the majority of languages that do not make fine ...
: This case, in most environments, means "to, towards; at, in, near, on". However, following a present imperfect verbal theme, it takes on a past tense meaning, and after an imperative verbal theme it means "if I...;if you...etc". The allative suffix appears as /-t-/ when the preceding theme ends in a vowel or /VH/ or the nominative case, elsewhere it appears as /-tHo-/. The allative case is usually followed by the nominative case, but the accusative is also possible. The following are examples of common allative case usages:
**''la:ma-t-Ø'' "at the tree"
**''hollop-tHo-ʔ'' "in the hole"
**''kacc-Ø-t-Ø'' "he said"
*
Locative case
In grammar, the locative case (abbreviated ) is a grammatical case which indicates a location. It corresponds vaguely to the English prepositions "in", "on", "at", and "by". The locative case belongs to the general local cases, together with the ...
: This case carries the meaning "in, on, at". The locative suffix morpheme is /-m-/. When the preceding morpheme ends in a vowel, the following nominative case appears as zero, but if the preceding morpheme ends in a consonant, the following nominative case appears as /-ʔ/. Other than the nominative case, the locative case can be followed by the nominal suffix /-to-/, postfixes and in rare occurrences, the diminutive suffix /-ccY-/. The following are examples of common locative case usages:
**''hollop-m-uʔ'' "in the hole"
**''cuʔpaH-m-Ø'' "in the middle"
*
Instrumental case
In grammar, the instrumental case (abbreviated or ) is a grammatical case used to indicate that a noun is the ''instrument'' or means by or with which the subject achieves or accomplishes an action. The noun may be either a physical object or an ...
: This case suffix carries the meaning "with, by means of". When used in a sentence with both a direct and an indirect object, the instrumental case marks the direct object in a sentence such as "to (do something) for (someone)". The instrumental case can be followed by the nominative case. The instrumental case suffix is /-Hs-/. The following are examples of common instrumental case usages:
**''jawwe-Hs-Ø'' "with a bow"
**''jawwenti-Hs-Ø'' "with my bow"
**''ʔenyhnama: jawwe-Hs haja:puj'' "I am making a bow for the chief"
Possessive
*
Genitive case
In grammar, the genitive case (abbreviated ) is the grammatical case that marks a word, usually a noun, as modifying another word, also usually a noun—thus indicating an attributive relationship of one noun to the other noun. A genitive can al ...
: This case can function as either autonomous or subordinate and carries the possessive meaning. As an autonomous suffix, it has the suffix /-ŋ/, but as a subordinate suffix it is /-ŋŋ-/. The subordinate suffix can be followed by either nominative or accusative cases. The following are common examples of common genitive case usages:
**''hikaHh-ŋ'' "the deer's"
**''manaX-ŋŋ-ʔ'' "whose is it?"
**''ʔissak-ŋŋ-ʔ'' "it is his"
Word Order
Due to the rich case system in Southern Sierra Miwok, the word order is of little to no importance to the syntax or semantics. For example, ''naŋŋaʔ halki: hika:hyj''; ''naŋŋaʔ hika:hyj halki:''; ''hika:hyj naŋŋaʔ halki:''; and ''halki: naŋŋaʔ hika:hyj'' in which, ''naŋŋaʔ'' means "the man, nominative case", ''halki:'' means "he is hunting" and ''hika:hyj'' means "deer, accusative case" so each sentence given above regardless of the order means: "the man is hunting the deer".
Sentence Types
Southern Sierra Miwok contains three syntactic substitution classes, nominal expressions, verbal expressions and particles. Some members of each class can stand alone as a complete utterance. To form more complex sentences, members of the different classes are combined. Below are examples of possible complete utterances:
*Certain particles in isolation:
**''hy:ʔy:'' "yes"
**''ken'' "no"
*A nominative expression:
**''ʔypy:'' "Father!"
**''naŋŋaʔ cytyʔ'' "the man is good" (nominative case)
**''ʔisʔok cyllas'' "with this awl" (instrumental case)
*A nominative expression with one or more particles:
**''ʔi:ʔok hane:'' "That must be it"
**''hy:ʔy: tamaʔhoʔ ʔi:ʔok'' "Yes, those sourberries"
*A verbal expression:
**''cy:lyma:'' "I'm weaving"
**''micyknanintiʔ'' "What can I do?"
*A verbal expression with one or more particles:
**''kella:meʔ hane:'' "Maybe it's going to snow on us"
**''hyjjiccyppu: paʔis sikej'' "They are looking at it so earnestly"
*A verbal expression with one or more nominal expressions:
**''sypes ʔolluʔuhhuko: tollet pattytyt'' "With a digging stick, they would dig in the hard ground"
*A verbal expression with one or more secondary verbal expressions:
**''ʔitanʔok hojeʔ, keŋo:tuʔuhhuko: leppathoj'' "Then next they would gather it up, being finished"
**''ʔespaniniʔkan, miʔlek sikej cinnipiccyniʔ, tehhyhniʔ sikej ʔi:ʔok ʔipuksʔajny:ʔok, lotuksuʔajny: ʔi:ʔok hawaj'' "I can help you, you are very small, you are very light to be doing that, to be holding on to that rock"
*Two or more verbal expressions in coordinate constructions:
**''lu:tiʔ ʔojiswi:jy:, lu:tiʔ ʔotikwi:jy:'' "Some quarter it, some divide it in two"
Documentary history
Field recordings of Southern Sierra Miwok were made in the 1950s by linguist Sylvia M. Broadbent, and several speakers, especially Chris Brown, Castro Johnson, and Alice Wilson.
See also
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Miwok
The Miwok (also spelled Miwuk, Mi-Wuk, or Me-Wuk) are members of four linguistically related Native American groups indigenous to what is now Northern California, who traditionally spoke one of the Miwok languages in the Utian family. The word ' ...
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Valley and Sierra Miwok
The Plains and Sierra Miwok were once the largest group of California Indian Miwok people, indigenous to California. Their homeland included regions of the Sacramento Valley, San Joaquin Valley, and the Sierra Nevada.
Geography
The Plains and ...
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Penutian
Penutian is a proposed grouping of language families that includes many Native American languages of western North America, predominantly spoken at one time in British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and California. The existence of a Penutian st ...
References
Sources
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* Sloan, Kelly Dawn. (1991). Syllables and Templates: Evidence from Southern Sierra Miwok. Cambridge, MA. MIT Doctoral Dissertation
External links
Online books about the Southern Sierra MiwokSouthern Sierra Miwok DictionarySouthern Sierra Miwok basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database(map after Kroeber)
Southern Sierra Miwok languageoverview at the
Survey of California and Other Indian Languages
The Survey of California and Other Indian Languages (originally the Survey of California Indian Languages) at the University of California at Berkeley documents, catalogs, and archives the indigenous languages of the Americas. The survey also hosts ...
Southern Sierra Miwok, California Language ArchiveSouthern Sierra Miwok, World Atlas of Language StructuresOLAC resources in and about the Southern Sierra Miwok language*
{{Languages of California
Utian languages
Endangered indigenous languages of the Americas
Native American language revitalization
Mariposa County, California
Miwok