tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forest
Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests (TSMF), also known as tropical moist forest, is a subtropical and tropical forest habitat type defined by the World Wide Fund for Nature.
Description
TSMF is generally found in large, discont ...
ecoregion
An ecoregion (ecological region) or ecozone (ecological zone) is an ecologically and geographically defined area that is smaller than a bioregion, which in turn is smaller than a biogeographic realm. Ecoregions cover relatively large areas of ...
in the
Yungas
The Yungas (Aymara ''yunka'' warm or temperate Andes or earth, Quechua ''yunka'' warm area on the slopes of the Andes) is a bioregion of a narrow band of forest along the eastern slope of the Andes Mountains from Peru and Bolivia, and extends into ...
of southwestern
Bolivia
, image_flag = Bandera de Bolivia (Estado).svg
, flag_alt = Horizontal tricolor (red, yellow, and green from top to bottom) with the coat of arms of Bolivia in the center
, flag_alt2 = 7 × 7 square p ...
and northwestern
Argentina
Argentina (), officially the Argentine Republic ( es, link=no, República Argentina), is a country in the southern half of South America. Argentina covers an area of , making it the List of South American countries by area, second-largest ...
.
Geography
The ecoregion occurs along the eastern slope of the
Andes
The Andes, Andes Mountains or Andean Mountains (; ) are the longest continental mountain range in the world, forming a continuous highland along the western edge of South America. The range is long, wide (widest between 18°S – 20°S ...
from southern Bolivia into northern Argentina, at elevations ranging from . In the lowlands to the east the Yungas transition to the semi-arid
Dry Chaco
The Gran Chaco or Dry Chaco is a sparsely populated, hot and semiarid lowland natural region of the Río de la Plata basin, divided among eastern Bolivia, western Paraguay, northern Argentina, and a portion of the Brazilian states of Mato ...
. To the northwest they are bounded by the
Bolivian montane dry forests
The Bolivian montane dry forests (NT0206) is an ecoregion in Bolivia on the eastern side of the Andes. It is a transitional habitat between the puna grasslands higher up to the west and the Chaco scrub to the east. The habitat is under severe stres ...
, and by the high-elevation
Central Andean puna
The Central Andean puna is a montane grasslands and shrublands ecoregion in the Andes of southern Peru, Bolivia, and northern Argentina.
Setting
The landscape in this ecoregion consists of high mountains with permanent snow and ice, meadows, l ...
and
High Monte
The High Monte is a montane grasslands and shrublands ecoregion in Argentina.
Geography
The High Monte is located on the eastern slopes of the Andes, extending from the vicinity of Salta (24º S) south to Mendoza (32º S). It is a landscape of ...
grasslands to the west.
Climate
This ecoregion has a
subtropical highland climate
An oceanic climate, also known as a marine climate, is the humid temperate climate sub-type in Köppen classification ''Cfb'', typical of west coasts in higher middle latitudes of continents, generally featuring cool summers and mild winters ...
. The climate is influenced by trade winds from the east that bring up to of rain per year. There is a dry season from April to October, and occasional snowfall at higher elevations during the winter months.Malizia, L.; Pacheco, S.; Blundo, C.; Brown, A.D. "Caracterización altitudinal, uso y conservación de las Yungas Subtropicales de Argentina". ''Ecosistemas'', vol. 21, núm. 1-2, January-August, 2012, pp. 53-73
Rainfall and temperature varies with elevation. In the foothill forests (400 to 900 meters elevation) average annual rainfall ranges from 550 to 1400 mm, with a mean of 820 mm. Mean annual temperature is 21.5°C, with a mean maximum of 27.6°C, and a mean minimum of 15.4°C. In the montane forest belt between 900 and 1600 meters elevation, rainfall averages 1,100 to 2,300 mm annually, with a mean of 1,800 mm. Average annual rainfall in the upper montane forests, between 1,600 and 2,300 meters elevation, ranges from 800 to 1,400 mm, with a mean of 1100 mm. The montane forest and upper montane forest are
cloud forest
A cloud forest, also called a water forest, primas forest, or tropical montane cloud forest (TMCF), is a generally tropical or subtropical, evergreen, montane, moist forest characterized by a persistent, frequent or seasonal low-level cloud ...
s, where mist and cloud cloud cover can contribute up to 100% additional vertical precipitation. Mean temperature in the montane and upper montane belts is 11.7°C, with a mean maximum of 21.8◦C and a mean minimum of 8.8◦C.
Flora
The Southern Andean Yungas consists of a mesic evergreen forest, with trees typically less than tall.
The species composition of the forests varies with elevation and precipitation. The foothill forests are a transition between the Yungas and the semi-arid
Dry Chaco
The Gran Chaco or Dry Chaco is a sparsely populated, hot and semiarid lowland natural region of the Río de la Plata basin, divided among eastern Bolivia, western Paraguay, northern Argentina, and a portion of the Brazilian states of Mato ...
of the lowlands. Trees are predominantly of the bean family (
), and of tropical origin. Many trees are dry-season deciduous, particularly below 700 meters elevation.
Montane forests (''selva montaña'') occur between 900 and 1600 meters elevation. Trees from families Leguminosae,
Sapindaceae
The Sapindaceae are a family of flowering plants in the order Sapindales known as the soapberry family. It contains 138 genera and 1858 accepted species. Examples include horse chestnut, maples, ackee and lychee.
The Sapindaceae occur in temp ...
,
Lauraceae
Lauraceae, or the laurels, is a plant family that includes the true laurel and its closest relatives. This family comprises about 2850 known species in about 45 genera worldwide (Christenhusz & Byng 2016 ). They are dicotyledons, and occur m ...
, and
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae, the spurge family, is a large family of flowering plants. In English, they are also commonly called euphorbias, which is also the name of a genus in the family. Most spurges, such as '' Euphorbia paralias'', are herbs, but some, ...
are prominent, along with species of ''
Cordia
''Cordia'' is a genus of flowering plants in the borage family, Boraginaceae. It contains about 300 species of shrubs and trees, that are found worldwide, mostly in warmer regions. Many of the species are commonly called manjack, while ''bocote ...
'' from family
Boraginaceae
Boraginaceae, the borage or forget-me-not family, includes about 2,000 species of shrubs, trees and herbs in 146, to 156 genera with a worldwide distribution.
The APG IV system from 2016 classifies the Boraginaceae as single family of the ...
. Most are from families and genera of tropical origin. ''
Allophylus edulis
''Allophylus edulis'' ( pt, chal-chal) is a plant species in the genus ''Allophylus'' endemic to the Guianas, Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, Argentina and Uruguay.
Phytochemistry
Quebrachitol, a cyclitol
In organic chemistry, a cyclitol is a cycl ...
, Parapiptadenia excelsa, Blepharocalyx salicifolius'', and '' Ocotea porphyria'' are present at all elevations, and are of greatest ecological importance between 1,300 and 1,500 meters elevation. Myrtle forests occur between 1000 and 1400 meters elevation, dominated by trees from the myrtle family (
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae, the myrtle family, is a family of dicotyledonous plants placed within the order Myrtales. Myrtle, pōhutukawa, bay rum tree, clove, guava, acca (feijoa), allspice, and eucalyptus are some notable members of this group. All sp ...
). In the myrtle forests the co-dominant trees are güili colorado (''
Amomyrtella guilii
''Amomyrtella'' is a genus of flowering plants in the myrtle family, Myrtaceae, first described as a genus in 1956. It is native to South America, where it is distributed from Ecuador to Argentina.Myrcianthes pseudomato'').''Plan de Gestión: Parque Nacional Campo de los Alisos''. Ministerio de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sustentable Administración de Parques Nacionales Argentina, July 2016.
Between 1500 and 1600 meters elevation there is a transition zone between the montane and upper montane forests. Upper montane forests (''Bosque deciduo'' or ''bosque montaño'') extend from . They are dominated by Andean alder (''
Alnus acuminata
''Alnus acuminata'' is a species of deciduous tree in the Betulaceae family. It is found in montane forests from central Mexico to Argentina.Zuloaga, F. O., O. N. Morrone, M. J. Belgrano, C. Marticorena & E. Marchesi. (eds.) 2008. Catálogo de ...
Polylepis australis
''Polylepis australis'', also known locally as tabaquillo or queñoa is a tree endemic of central Argentina, member of the family Rosaceae. The genus ''Polylepis'' originated in the eastern Andean forests of eastern South America.
Description
Th ...
Sambucus peruviana
''Sambucus peruviana'' is a species of tree in the family Adoxaceae. It is native to Central America and South America.
Description
Trees up to 8 m, irregular trunk. Leaves compound, with 7-9 ovate-oblong leaflets, margin serrate, acute apex, ha ...
Eupatorium
''Eupatorium'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Asteraceae, containing from 36 to 60 species depending on the classification system. Most are herbaceous perennials growing to tall. A few are shrubs. The genus is native to temper ...
'' and '' Kaunia''. Many trees are deciduous, and of
Holarctic
The Holarctic realm is a biogeographic realm that comprises the majority of habitats found throughout the continents in the Northern Hemisphere. It corresponds to the floristic Boreal Kingdom. It includes both the Nearctic zoogeographical region ...
or Antarctic–Gondwanan origin.
Above 2600 meters elevation, the forests transition to subalpine grassland and shrubland (''pastizal de neblina''), of the
Central Andean puna
The Central Andean puna is a montane grasslands and shrublands ecoregion in the Andes of southern Peru, Bolivia, and northern Argentina.
Setting
The landscape in this ecoregion consists of high mountains with permanent snow and ice, meadows, l ...
ecoregion.
Fauna
Many tropical species find the southern limit of their range in this ecoregion.
Mammals that may be found here include the
red brocket
The red brocket (''Mazama americana'') is a species of brocket deer from forests in South America, ranging from northern Argentina to Colombia and the Guianas. It also occurs on the Caribbean island of Trinidad (it also occurred on the island of ...
(''Mazama americana''),
gray brocket
The gray brocket (''Mazama gouazoubira''), also known as the brown brocket, is a species of brocket deer from northern Argentina, Bolivia, southern Peru, eastern and southern Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay. It formerly included the Amazonian br ...
(''Mazama gouazoupira''),
white-lipped peccary
The white-lipped peccary (''Tayassu pecari'') is a species of peccary found in Central America, Central and South America and the only member of the genus ''Tayassu''. Multiple subspecies have been identified. White-lipped peccaries are similar ...
(''Tayassu pecari''),
collared peccary
The collared peccary (''Dicotyles tajacu'') is a species of artiodactyl (even-toed) mammal in the family Tayassuidae found in North, Central, and South America. It is the only member of the genus ''Dicotyles''. They are commonly referred to as ' ...
(''Dicotyles tajacu''), and
South American tapir
The South American tapir (''Tapirus terrestris''), also commonly called the Brazilian tapir (from the Tupi ''tapi'ira''), the Amazonian tapir, the maned tapir, the lowland tapir, the ''anta'' (Portuguese), and ''la sachavaca'' (literally "bushco ...
(''Tapirus terrestris''). Cats include the
jaguar
The jaguar (''Panthera onca'') is a large cat species and the only living member of the genus '' Panthera'' native to the Americas. With a body length of up to and a weight of up to , it is the largest cat species in the Americas and the th ...
margay
The margay (''Leopardus wiedii'') is a small wild cat native to Central and South America. A solitary and nocturnal cat, it lives mainly in primary evergreen and deciduous forest.
Until the 1990s, margays were hunted illegally for the wildlif ...
(''Leopardus wiedii''), and
jaguarundi
The jaguarundi (''Herpailurus yagouaroundi'') is a wild cat native to the Americas. Its range extends from central Argentina in the south to northern Mexico, through Central and South America east of the Andes. The jaguarundi is a medium-sized ...
(''Herpailurus yagouaroundi''). Other carnivores include the
crab-eating fox
The crab-eating fox (''Cerdocyon thous''), also known as the forest fox, wood fox, bushdog (not to be confused with the bush dog) or maikong, is an extant species of medium-sized canid endemic to the central part of South America since at least ...
(''Cerdocyon thous'') and
tayra
The tayra (''Eira barbara'') is an omnivorous animal from the weasel family, native to the Americas. It is the only species in the genus ''Eira''.
Tayras are also known as the ''tolomuco'' or ''perico ligero'' in Central America, ''motete'' in ...
(''Eira barbara''). The
Pampas fox
The Pampas fox (''Lycalopex gymnocercus''), also known as grey pampean fox, Pampas zorro, Azara's fox, or Azara's zorro (in Spanish also called , anglicized as aguarachay, in Portuguese also called ), is a medium-sized zorro, or "false" fox, na ...
(''Lycalopex gymnocercus'') is found in foothill forests in the transition to the Chaco.
Characteristic birds of the ecoregion include the
Andean condor
The Andean condor (''Vultur gryphus'') is a giant South American Cathartid vulture and is the only member of the genus ''Vultur''. Found in the Andes mountains and adjacent Pacific coasts of western South America, the Andean condor is the larg ...
band-tailed pigeon
The band-tailed pigeon (''Patagioenas fasciata'') is a medium-sized bird of the Americas. Its closest relatives are the Chilean pigeon and the ring-tailed pigeon, which form a clade of ''Patagioenas'' with a terminal tail band and iridescent p ...
Azara's spinetail
Azara's spinetail (''Synallaxis azarae'') is a species of bird in the family Furnariidae, named after Spanish people, Spanish Natural history, naturalist Félix de Azara.
Distribution and habitat
It is found in Argentina, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecua ...
two-banded warbler
The two-banded warbler (''Myiothlypis bivittata'') is a species of bird in the family Parulidae. It is found in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Guyana, Peru, and Venezuela. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist montane forests and h ...
(''Myiothlypis bivittata''), and Andean slaty thrush (''Turdus nigriceps''). Birds endemic to this ecoregion include the red-faced guan (''Penelope dabbenei''),
Tucumán amazon
The Tucumán amazon (''Amazona tucumana''), also known as the Tucumán parrot, alder amazon, or alder parrot, is a vulnerable species of bird in subfamily Arinae of the family Psittacidae, the African and New World parrots. It is found in Argen ...
(''Amazona tucumana''),
Rothschild's swift
Rothschild's swift (''Cypseloides rothschildi'') is a Near Threatened species of bird in subfamily Cypseloidinae of the swift family Apodidae.HBW and BirdLife International (2021) Handbook of the Birds of the World and BirdLife International di ...
(''Cypseloides rothschildi''), and the
rufous-throated dipper
The rufous-throated dipper or Argentine dipper (''Cinclus schulzii'') is an aquatic songbird found in South America, and is part of the dipper family.
It lives along rapid rocky streams of the Southern Andean Yungas, in far southern Bolivia an ...
(''Cinclus schulzi'').Swainson's thrush (''Catharus ustulatus'') is a seasonal migrant.
Native
amphibian
Amphibians are tetrapod, four-limbed and ectothermic vertebrates of the Class (biology), class Amphibia. All living amphibians belong to the group Lissamphibia. They inhabit a wide variety of habitats, with most species living within terres ...
s include the toads ''
Rhinella arenarum
''Rhinella arenarum'' is a species of toad in the family Bufonidae that is found in southern Brazil and Uruguay; can also occur in Paraguay. It is also found in Argentina from the Chubut Province
Chubut ( es, Provincia del Chubut, ; cy, Talait ...
Central Andean puna
The Central Andean puna is a montane grasslands and shrublands ecoregion in the Andes of southern Peru, Bolivia, and northern Argentina.
Setting
The landscape in this ecoregion consists of high mountains with permanent snow and ice, meadows, l ...
. The critically endangered frog '' Telmatobius ceiorum'' is endemic to the Yungas of the Sierra del Aconquija.IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group. 2019. Telmatobius ceiorum. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2019: e.T57330A3057966. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-2.RLTS.T57330A3057966.en. Accessed on 24 April 2022.
Aconquija National Park
Aconquija National Park ( es, Parque Nacional Aconquija), formerly known as Campo de los Alisos National Park, is a federal protected area in Tucumán Province, Argentina. Established on 9 August 1995, it houses a representative sample of the Sou ...
(Campo de los Alisos National Park)
*
Amboró National Park
Amboró National Park in central Bolivia is a nature reserve with over 912 species of birds, over 177 mammalian species including puma, ocelot, and the rare spectacled bear. Covering an area of 4,425 km² (1,709 sq mi), it is protected from ...
Baritú National Park
The Baritú National Park ( es, Parque Nacional Baritú) is a national park in Argentina, located in Santa Victoria Department, in the north of Salta Province, in the Argentine Northwest. The park borders Bolivia (Tarija Department), and its onl ...
*
Calilegua National Park
Calilegua National Park ( es, Parque Nacional Calilegua) is a federally protected area in Jujuy Province, Argentina.It was established on July 19, 1979, and houses a representative sample of the Southern Andean Yungas biodiversity in good state o ...
El Rey National Park
The El Rey National Park ( es, Parque Nacional El Rey) is a national park of Argentina, located in the Anta Department, province of Salta, in the Argentine Northwest, 80 km from the provincial capital. It has an area of 441.62 km².
The ...