Sonom (died circa June 13–14, 1776) was a chieftain of the
rGyalrong people
Gyalrong people (Tibetan: རྒྱལ་རོང, Chinese:嘉绒), also called Jiarong, rGyalrong, are speakers of the Qiangic Gyalrong language who live in the southern part of Ngawa Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture of Sichuan, China. Th ...
in
China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
. He was the lord-lama of Greater Jinchuan.Theobald, Ulrich. ''War Finance and Logistics in Late Imperial China: A Study of the Second Jinchuan Campaign (1771–1776)'' (Monies, Markets, and Finance in East Asia, 1600-1900).
BRILL
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, July 11, 2013. , 9789004255678. p 20 He was executed after his January 1776 defeat in the
Jinchuan campaigns
The Jinchuan campaigns (), also known as the Suppression of the Jinchuan Hill Peoples (Chinese: 平定兩金川), were two wars between Qing Empire and the rebel forces of Gyalrong chieftains ("Tusi") from the Jinchuan region. The first campaig ...
.
Family
Sonom was the fourth son of Langkya , who was the previous ruler of Greater Jinchuan. Sonom's mother was Atsang ,Theobald, The Second Jinchuan Campaign " p. 60 (PDF 70/458). "Senggesang was supported by two of his relatives in Greater Jinchuan, Sonom 索諾木 and Langyka, who both wrote official reports to the imperial court to defend their aggressions." and "Langkya in Greater Jinchuan died from a disease, allegedly likewise caused by an evil spell mantra cast by the king of Gebshidza. His heir was his fourth son Sonom, aged 19 ''sui'',132 and therefore assisted by his mother Atsang 阿倉 and his aunt Atsing 阿青." and his eldest brother was Shaloben Gangdak.Theobald, The Second Jinchuan Campaign " p. 83 (PDF 93/458).
According to the ''Jinchuan suoji'' ("Petty Notes on Jinchuan") 3 by Li Xinheng , a paternal aunt of Sonom was the wife of Senggesang . Langkya's daughter married Senggesang. Therefore, Langkya is also Sonom's great-uncle.Theobald, The Second Jinchuan Campaign " p. 59 (PDF 69/458). "130 ''Pingding Liang Jinchuan fanglüe'' 5, fol. 11b-12a (QL 32/2/wushen). The ''Jinchuan suoji'' 3, p. 26, writes that Senggesang’s wife was the aunt (gu 姑) of Sonom, which would mean that Langkya was Sonom’s great- uncle."
Sonom's grandfather was Leržirhi .Theobald, The Second Jinchuan Campaign " p. 61 (PDF 71/458). "Sonom offered the excuse that the king of Gebshidza had planned
to kill his nephew Dundju Wangdjar 敦珠汪札爾 and .. and "The Jinchuan suoji 3, p. 26, says that the murderer was Sonom’s grandfather (zu 祖) Leržirhi 勒爾日爾習." One of Sonom's aunts was Atsing . He had a nephew, Dundju Wangdjar.
Career
Sonom, along with Langyka, supported Senggesang's military campaigns. They argued in favor of their actions in reports they sent to the Chinese government. At 19 ''sui'' Sonom became the leader of Greater Jichuan after Langkya's death. At the beginning of his rule,Theobald, The Second Jinchuan Campaign (1771 – 1776) Economic, Social and Political Aspects of an Important Qing Period Border War " p. 30 (PDF 40/458). "6.2. Even Sonom, the rebel leader, had been assisted by his mother and an aunt at the beginning of his reign as lord of Greater Jinchuan (see below)." Atsang and Atsing assisted him. Ulrich Theobald, author of "The Second Jinchuan Campaign (1771 – 1776) Economic, Social and Political Aspects of an Important Qing Period Border War", wrote that Sonom "hesitated a long time before promising his support to Lesser Jinchuan during the second Jinchuan war."Theobald, The Second Jinchuan Campaign " p. 13 (PDF 23/458).
Death
In January 1776 his forces were defeated in the
Jinchuan wars
The Jinchuan campaigns (), also known as the Suppression of the Jinchuan Hill Peoples (Chinese: 平定兩金川), were two wars between Qing Empire and the rebel forces of Gyalrong chieftains ("Tusi") from the Jinchuan region. The first campai ...
of the
Ten Great Campaigns
The Ten Great Campaigns () were a series of military campaigns launched by the Qing dynasty of China in the mid–late 18th century during the reign of the Qianlong Emperor (r. 1735–1796). They included three to enlarge the area of Qing contro ...
. He and his family were presented to the
Emperor of China
''Huangdi'' (), translated into English as Emperor, was the superlative title held by monarchs of China who ruled various imperial regimes in Chinese history. In traditional Chinese political theory, the emperor was considered the Son of Heave ...
.
Circa June 13–14, 1776, Sonom and other rebel leaders were executed by ''
lingchi
''Lingchi'' (; ), translated variously as the slow process, the lingering death, or slow slicing, and also known as death by a thousand cuts, was a form of torture and execution used in China from roughly 900 CE up until the practice ended aro ...
''. Of his family, some of the women were enslaved and given to lords of the Ölöd Mongol and Solun. Other women and the children were sentenced to
life imprisonment
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Hmong
Hmong may refer to:
* Hmong people, an ethnic group living mainly in Southwest China, Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand
* Hmong cuisine
* Hmong customs and culture
** Hmong music
** Hmong textile art
* Hmong language, a continuum of closely related to ...
king.Entenmann, p. 1. The book by Quincy, cited by others, stated that in 1772 Sonom had defeated a Chinese army and that Sonom had held the Chinese government forces at bay for four years. According to the Quincy account, ultimately Sonom surrendered when the Chinese promised that his family would survive if he did so. Instead he and his family were executed. Paul Hillmer, the author of the ''A People’s History of the Hmong'', wrote that "This compelling story helps set a dramatic tone for discussing the Hmong's life of hardship in China".Hillmer, Paul. ''A People’s History of the Hmong'' (UPCC book collections on
Project MUSE
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).
Minnesota Historical Society
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, 2010. , 9780873517904.
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br>Page unstated PT20
Robert Entenmann, author of "The Myth of Sonom, the Hmong King," stated that Sonom in fact was not Hmong. Entenmann argued that the use of the word "
Miao Miao may refer to:
* Miao people, linguistically and culturally related group of people, recognized as such by the government of the People's Republic of China
* Miao script or Pollard script, writing system used for Miao languages
* Miao (Unicode ...
" was imprecise during the time when
Jean Joseph Marie Amiot
Jean Joseph Marie Amiot (sometimes Amyot; ; February 1718October 9, 1793) was a French Jesuit missionary in Qing China, during the reign of the Qianlong Emperor.
Life
Joseph Marie Amiot was born at Toulon. He entered the Society of Jesus in 1 ...
wrote an account of the
Jinchuan Wars
The Jinchuan campaigns (), also known as the Suppression of the Jinchuan Hill Peoples (Chinese: 平定兩金川), were two wars between Qing Empire and the rebel forces of Gyalrong chieftains ("Tusi") from the Jinchuan region. The first campai ...
,Entenmann, p. 5. since the
Qing government
The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speaki ...
under the
Qianlong Emperor
The Qianlong Emperor (25 September 17117 February 1799), also known by his temple name Emperor Gaozong of Qing, born Hongli, was the fifth Emperor of the Qing dynasty and the fourth Qing emperor to rule over China proper, reigning from 1735 t ...
referred to all ethnic minorities in Southwest China as "Miao people" ().Entenmann, p. 6. Amiot uses "Miao-tsée" () to refer to the
Gyalrong people
Gyalrong people (Tibetan: རྒྱལ་རོང, Chinese:嘉绒), also called Jiarong, rGyalrong, are speakers of the Qiangic Gyalrong language who live in the southern part of Ngawa Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture of Sichuan, China. Th ...
, of which Sonom was a part.Entenmann, p. 4. This is distinct from the word "Miaozu" ().Entenmann, p. 14. "30
Herbert A. Giles
Herbert Allen Giles (, 8 December 184513 February 1935) was a British diplomat and sinologist who was the professor of Chinese at the University of Cambridge for 35 years. Giles was educated at Charterhouse School before becoming a British dip ...
, ''
A Chinese-English Dictionary
A, or a, is the first Letter (alphabet), letter and the first vowel of the Latin alphabet, Latin alphabet, used in the English alphabet, modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. Its name ...
'', 2nd ed. (Shanghai:
Kelly & Walsh
Kelly & Walsh was a notable Shanghai-based publisher of English language books, founded in 1876, which currently exists as a small chain of shops in Hong Kong specializing in art books.
Kelly & Walsh Ltd. was formed in 1876 by combining two Shang ...
, 1912), p. 973. "Miaozi 苗子" — which has a pejorative connotation — must be distinguished from "Miaozu 苗族" (Miao nationality), which does not." and "33 Nicholas Tapp's harsh criticism of the book as "extraordinarily inaccurate and utterly misleading" is fully justified. See his review essay, "The State of Hmong Studies," in Nicholas Tapp, Jean Michaud, Christian Culas, and Gary Yia Lee, eds. ''Hmong/Miao in Asia'' (
Chiangmai
Chiang Mai (, from th, เชียงใหม่ , nod, , เจียงใหม่ ), sometimes written as Chiengmai or Chiangmai, is the largest city in northern Thailand, the capital of Chiang Mai province and the second largest city in ...
:
Silkworm Books
The domestic silk moth (''Bombyx mori''), is an insect from the moth family Bombycidae. It is the closest relative of ''Bombyx mandarina'', the wild silk moth. The silkworm is the larva or caterpillar of a silk moth. It is an economically im ...
, 2004). "
François Marie Savina
François Marie Savina (20 March 1876 – 23 July 1941Michaud, Jean. ''Historical Dictionary of the Peoples of the Southeast Asian Massif'' (Historical Dictionaries of Peoples and Cultures). Scarecrow Press, April 19, 2006. , 9780810865037. p209) ...
, in ''
Histoire des Miao
''Histoire des Miao'' ("History of the Miao") is a 1924 ethnographic book of the Hmong people by François Marie Savina, published by the Société des Missions-Etrangères de Paris.Savina, François-Marie 1924, ''Histoire des Miao.'' Hong Kong: ...
'', reprinted the account by Amiot. Entenmann stated that Savina made the error confusing the Gyalrong for the Hmong because he "was unfamiliar with Chinese history and the subtleties of Chinese vocabulary" even though he had studied Chinese.Entenmann, p. 6. The word "Miao" in general was also used to refer to Hmong people. Entenmann stated that the book ''Hmong: History of a People'' "does not offer a reliable history of the Hmong in China" because Quincy was "evidently not trained as a historian" and did not read Chinese, so he introduced the error made by Savina. Jean Mottin also included the Savina account in ''The History of the Hmong (Meo)''.Entenmann, p. 12.
Anne Fadiman
Anne Fadiman (born August 7, 1953) is an American essayist and reporter. Her interests include literary journalism, essays, memoir, and autobiography. She has received the National Book Critics Circle Award, the Los Angeles Times Book Prize for ...
in her book ''
The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down
''The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down: A Hmong Child, Her American Doctors, and the Collision of Two Cultures'' is a 1997 book by Anne Fadiman that chronicles the struggles of a Hmong refugee family from Houaysouy, Sainyabuli Province, La ...
'' cited Quincy and stated that Sonom was Hmong. Entenmann wrote that because of the reliance on Quincy's book, Fadiman's book propagated the mistaken idea that Sonom was a Hmong king.
Hillmer wrote that Entenmann's article "has largely proved ..hat Sonom was not Hmong".
University of Tübingen
The University of Tübingen, officially the Eberhard Karl University of Tübingen (german: Eberhard Karls Universität Tübingen; la, Universitas Eberhardina Carolina), is a public research university located in the city of Tübingen, Baden-Wü ...