Soft Corals

Alcyonacea, or soft corals, are an order of corals. In addition to the fleshy soft corals, the order Alcyonacea now contains all species previously known as "gorgonian corals", that produce a more or less hard skeleton, though quite different from "true" corals (Scleractinia). These can be found in suborders Holaxonia, Scleraxonia, and Stolonifera. They are sessile colonial cnidarians that are found throughout the oceans of the world, especially in the deep sea, polar waters, tropics and subtropics. Common names for subsets of this order are sea fans and sea whips; others are similar to the sea pens of related order Pennatulacea. Individual tiny polyps form colonies that are normally erect, flattened, branching, and reminiscent of a fan. Others may be whiplike, bushy, or even encrusting. A colony can be several feet high and across, but only a few inches thick. They may be brightly coloured, often purple, red, or yellow. Photosynthetic gorgonians can be successfully kept in captive aquaria.

About 500 different species of gorgonians are found in the oceans of the world, but they are particularly abundant in the shallow waters of the Western Atlantic, including Florida, Bermuda, and the West Indies.

Anatomy

The structure of a gorgonian colony varies. In the suborder Holaxonia, skeletons are formed from a flexible, horny substance called gorgonin. The suborder Scleraxonia species are supported by a skeleton of tightly grouped calcareous spicules. Also, some species encrust like coral.

Measurements of the gorgonin and calcite within several long-lived species of gorgonians can be useful in paleoclimatology and paleoceanography, as their skeletal growth rate and composition are highly correlated with seasonal and climatic variation.

Features

Soft corals contain minute, spiny skeletal elements called sclerites, useful in species identification. Sclerites give these corals some degree of support and give their flesh a spiky, grainy texture that deters predators. In the past, soft corals were thought to be unable to lay new foundations for future corals, but recent findings suggest that colonies of the leather-coral genus ''Sinularia'' are able to cement sclerites and consolidate them at their base into alcyonarian spiculite, thus making them reef builders.

Unlike stony corals, most soft corals thrive in nutrient-rich waters with less intense light. Almost all use symbiotic photosynthetic zooxanthella as a major energy source. However, most readily eat any free-floating food, such as zooplankton, out of the water column. They are integral members of the reef ecosystem and provide habitat for fish, snails, algae, and a diversity of other marine species.

Despite being dominated by "soft corals", the order Alcyonacea now contains all species known as "gorgonian corals", that produce a hard skeleton made from gorgonin, a protein unique to the group that makes their skeletons quite different from "true" corals (Scleractinia). These "gorgonion corals" can be found in suborders Holaxonia, Scleraxonia, and Stolonifera.

Many soft corals are easily collected in the wild for the reef aquarium hobby, as small cuttings are less prone to infection or damage during shipping than stony corals. Nevertheless, home-grown specimens tend to be more adaptable to aquarium life and help conserve wild reefs. Soft corals grow quickly in captivity and are easily divided into new individuals, and so those grown by aquaculture are often hardier and less expensive than imported corals from the wild.

Ecology

Each gorgonian polyp has eight tentacles, which catch plankton and particulate matter for consumption. This process, called filter feeding, is facilitated when the "fan" is oriented across the prevailing current to maximise water flow to the gorgonian, hence food supply.

Some gorgonians contain algae, or zooxanthellae. This symbiotic relationship assists in giving the gorgonian nutrition by photosynthesis. Gorgonians possessing zooxanthellae are usually characterized by brownish polyps.

Gorgonians are found primarily in shallow waters, though some have been found at depths of several thousand feet. The size, shape, and appearance of gorgonians can be correlated with their location. The more fan-shaped and flexible gorgonians tend to populate shallower areas with strong currents, while the taller, thinner, and stiffer gorgonians can be found in deeper, calmer waters.

Other fauna, such as hydrozoa, bryozoa, and brittle stars, are known to dwell within the branches of gorgonian colonies. The pygmy seahorse not only makes certain species of gorgonians its home, but also closely resembles its host, thus is well camouflaged. Two species of pygmy seahorse, ''Hippocampus bargibanti'' and ''Hippocampus denise,'' are obligate residents on gorgonians. ''H. bargibanti'' is limited to two species in the single genus ''Muricella''.

Gorgonians produce unusual organic compounds in their tissues, particularly diterpenes, and some of these are important candidates for new drugs. These compounds may be part of the chemical defenses produced by gorgonians to render their tissue distasteful to potential predators. Bottlenose dolphins in the Red Sea have been observed swimming against these tissues, in what is thought to be an attempt to take advantage of the antimicrobial qualities of diterpenes. Despite these chemical defenses, the tissues of gorgonians are prey for flamingo tongue snails of the genus ''Cyphoma,'' nudibranchs, the fireworm ''Hermodice'' spp., and their polyps are food for butterflyfishes. Amongst the nudibranchs which feed on soft corals and sea fans are the Tritoniidae and the genus ''Phyllodesmium'' which specialises in eating '' Xenia'' species.

Suborders and families

The World Register of Marine Species lists these suborders and families:

* suborder Alcyoniina McFadden & Ofwegen, 2017
** family Alcyoniidae Lamouroux, 1812
** family Aquaumbridae Breedy, van Ofwegen & Vargas, 2012
** family Corymbophytidae McFadden & Ofwegen, 2017
** family Leptophytidae McFadden & Ofwegen, 2017
** family Nephtheidae Gray, 1862
** family Nidaliidae Gray, 1869
** family Paralcyoniidae Gray, 1869
** family Xeniidae Ehrenberg, 1828
* suborder Calcaxonia
** family Chrysogorgiidae Verrill, 1883
** family Ellisellidae Gray, 1859
** family Ifalukellidae Bayer, 1955
** family Isididae Lamouroux, 1812
** family Primnoidae Milne Edwards, 1857
* suborder Holaxonia
** family Acanthogorgiidae Gray, 1859
** family Dendrobrachiidae Brook, 1889
** family Gorgoniidae Lamouroux, 1812
** family Keroeididae Kinoshita, 1910
** family Plexauridae Gray, 1859
* suborder Protoalcyonaria
** family Taiaroidae Bayer & Muzik, 1976
* suborder Scleraxonia
** family Anthothelidae Broch, 1916
** family Briareidae Gray, 1859
** family Coralliidae Lamouroux, 1812
** family Melithaeidae Kükenthal, 1916
** family Parisididae Aurivillius, 1931
** family Spongiodermidae Wright & Studer, 1889
** family Subergorgiidae Gray, 1859
** family Victorgorgiidae Moore, Alderslade & Miller, 2017
* suborder Stolonifera
** family Acrossotidae Bourne, 1914
** family Arulidae McFadden & van Ofwegen, 2012
** family Clavulariidae Hickson, 1894
** family Coelogorgiidae Bourne, 1900
** family Cornulariidae Dana, 1846
** family Pseudogorgiidae Utinomi & Harada, 1973
** family Tubiporidae Ehrenberg, 1828
* family Acanthoaxiidae van Ofwegen & McFadden, 2010
* family Haimeidae Wright, 1865
* family Paramuriceidae Bayer, 1956
* family Parasphaerascleridae McFadden & van Ofwegen, 2013
* family Viguieriotidae

File:Alcyonium acaule Marion, 1878 3.jpg, ''Alcyonium acaule'', an alcyoniid
File:Dendronephthya hemprichi at Gilli Lawa Laut.JPG, '' Dendronephthya hemprichi'', a nephtheid
File:Siphonogorgia godeffroyi (Pink soft coral).jpg, ''Siphonogorgia godeffroyi'', a nidaliid
File:Maasella edwardsi (de Lacaze-Duthiers, 1888).jpg, ''Maasella edwardsi'', a paralcyoniid
File:Pulsating xenid, Heteroxenia fuscescens, a soft coral that pulsates rhythmically around 40 times a minute (6163181047).jpg, ''Heteroxenia fuscescens'', a xeniid
File:Iridigorgia sp.jpg, '' Iridigorgia'' sp., a chrysogorgiid
File:Sea Whip (Ellisella sp.) (8486549324).jpg, ''Ellisella'' sp., an ellisellid
File:Isidella tentaculum - NOAA.jpg, ''Isidella tentaculum'', an isidid
File:Plumarella pellucida.jpg, '' Plumarella pellucida'', a primnoid
File:Pygmy Seahorse -Lembeh Straits.jpg, ''Muricella'' sp., an acanthogorgiid
File:Gorgonia ventalina, Bahamas.jpg, ''Gorgonia ventalina'', a gorgoniid
File:Paramuricea clavata (Risso, 1826) 5.jpg, ''Paramuricea clavata'', a paramuriceid
File:Muricea elongata.jpg, '' Muricea elongata'', a plexaurid
File:Anthothela grandiflora.jpg, '' Anthothela grandiflora'', an anthothelid
File:Briareum 2.JPG, ''Briareum'' sp., a briareid
File:Corallium rubrum (Linnaeus, 1758) 11.jpg, ''Corallium rubrum'', a coralliid
File:Acabaria splendens.jpg, ''Acabaria'', a paragorgiid
File:Gorgone de Mayotte.jpg, ''Annella mollis'', a subergorgiid
File:Pachiclavularia viridis.JPG, ''Clavularia viridis'', a clavulariid
File:Cornularia cornucopiae.jpg, '' Cornularia cornucopiae'', a cornulariid
File:Tubipora purpurea-Musée zoologique de Strasbourg.jpg, ''Tubipora musica'', Tubiporidae
File:Iciligorgia schrammi.jpg, ''Iciligorgia schrammi''

References

External links

The Marine Fauna Gallery of Norway



Gorgonian Corals

{{Taxonbar, from=Q137552, from2=Q1365073

Octocorallia
Cnidarian orders