Consensu or obligatio consensu or obligatio consensu contracta or obligations ex consensuGeorge Bowyer, ''Commentaries on the Modern Civil Law'' (London: V & R Stevens and G S Norton, 1848), chapter 26
p 201
or contractus ex consensu or contracts consensu or consensual contracts or obligations by consent are, in

Roman law Roman law is the law, legal system of ancient Rome, including the legal developments spanning over a thousand years of jurisprudence, from the Twelve Tables (c. 449 BC), to the ''Corpus Juris Civilis'' (AD 529) ordered by Eastern Roman emperor J ...

, those

contract A contract is a legally enforceable agreement between two or more parties that creates, defines, and governs mutual rights and obligations between them. A contract typically involves the transfer of goods, services, money, or a promise to tran ...

s which do not require formalities. These contracts were formed by the mere consent of the parties, there being no requirement for any writing or formalities, nor even for the presence of the parties. Such contracts were bilateral, that is to say, they bound both parties to them. Such contracts depended on the ''

ius gentium The ''ius gentium'' or ''jus gentium'' (Latin for "law of nations") is a concept of international law within the ancient Roman legal system and Western law traditions based on or influenced by it. The ''ius gentium'' is not a body of statute law n ...

'' for their validity and were enforced by praetorian

actions Action may refer to: * Action (narrative), a literary mode * Action fiction, a type of genre fiction * Action game, a genre of video game Film * Action film, a genre of film * ''Action'' (1921 film), a film by John Ford * ''Action'' (1980 fi ...

, ''bonae fidei'', and not by actions ''stricti juris'', as were the contracts which depended on the classical ''ius civile'' of Rome. The term "consensual" does not mean that the consent of the parties is more emphatically given than in other forms of agreement, but it indicates that the obligation is annexed at once to the consensus, in the contracts of this type.Gordon Campbell, ''A Compendium of Roman Law'', 2nd edn. (Bell Yard, Temple Bar, London: Stevens and Haynes, 1892)
p 130

Justinian's Institutes The ''Institutes'' ( la, Institutiones) is a component of the ''Corpus Juris Civilis'', the 6th-century codification of Roman law ordered by the Byzantine emperor Justinian I. It is largely based upon the '' Institutes'' of Gaius, a Roman jurist ...

classify the following contracts as ''ex consensu'': ''emptio venditio'', ''locatio conductio'', ''societas'' and ''mandatum''.

''Emptio venditio''

''Emptio venditio'' is a

contract of sale A contract of sale, sales contract, sales order, or contract for sale is a legal contract for the purchase of assets (goods or property) by a buyer (or purchaser) from a seller (or vendor) for an agreed upon value in money (or money equivalent). ...

. This contract derives its force from the

consent Consent occurs when one person voluntarily agrees to the proposal or desires of another. It is a term of common speech, with specific definitions as used in such fields as the law, medicine, research, and sexual relationships. Consent as und ...

of the parties. If, however, they agree to reduce the terms of the contract to writing, then the contract is not complete until it is fully committed to writing. If

earnest money An earnest payment or earnest money is a specific form of security deposit made in some major transactions such as real estate dealings or required by some official procurement processes to demonstrate that the applicant is serious and willing to ...

(''arrha'') had been given, this was forfeited to the seller if the buyer breaches the contract, and double the value of the earnest money was forfeited by the seller if he breaches the contract. The earnest money was considered only as evidence of the contract. There must be a price fixed and certain for every sale, and this price must consist of a sum of money. Observations on the above: (1) A sale of a thing at a price to be fixed by a third person is valid if the person does fix a price. (2) The price must be in money otherwise the contract is one of ''permutatio''. This was the view held by the Proculeans, the

Sabinians The Sabinian school was one of the two important schools of Law in Rome during the 1st and 2nd centuries CE. The Sabinians took their name from Masurius Sabinus but later were known as ''Cassians'' after Sabinus' student, Cassius Longinus. Sabini ...

considering it to be ''venditio''. The seller in a contract of sale had to guarantee the buyer free, undisturbed and lawful

possession Possession may refer to: Law * Dependent territory, an area of land over which another country exercises sovereignty, but which does not have the full right of participation in that country's governance * Drug possession, a crime * Ownership * ...

of the thing sold, and to secure him against latent faults. The buyer was bound to put the seller in legal possession of the purchase money. The contract of sale is completed by the consent of the parties; after this, the thing sold is at the risk of the buyer, who also obtained the advantage of any increase to the object. The actual transfer of the ''dominium'' (

ownership Ownership is the state or fact of legal possession and control over property, which may be any asset, tangible or intangible. Ownership can involve multiple rights, collectively referred to as title, which may be separated and held by different ...

) in the thing, that is, the conveyance, as distinguished from the contract, was completed by the delivery of the legal possession of the thing to the buyer. A sale might be made absolutely or subject to a condition. Accessory contracts modifying the principal one were termed ''pacta'' (or "pacts"). If the seller disposed of a thing that was not ''in commercio'', such as a

temple A temple (from the Latin ) is a building reserved for spiritual rituals and activities such as prayer and sacrifice. Religions which erect temples include Christianity (whose temples are typically called churches), Hinduism (whose temples ...

or a religious place, he was liable to the buyer for any loss that the latter might have incurred by the error. A stipulator in a similar case would have had no remedy. If the price was less than half the value of the thing sold, the seller might rescind the contract unless the buyer agreed to make up the deficiency. This was termed ''

laesio enormis ''Laesio enormis'' (Latin: ''abnormal harm'') is a legal doctrine that gives a contracting party the ability to rescind an agreement if the price of exchange is less than a certain sum (for instance one half, or two thirds) of its actual value. The ...

'' (or ''laesio ultra dimidium''). If the object sold was totally unfit for the purpose intended, the buyer might bring an action for

rescission Rescission is the noun form of the verb "to rescind." It may refer to: * Rescission (contract law) * Rescission bill, a procedure to rescind previously appropriated funding in the United States * A synonym for repeal in parliamentary procedure * ...

– the '' actio redhibitoria''. If the object possessed some defect which diminished its value, the buyer could bring the ''actio quanti minoris'' within one year; by this he obtained a corresponding reduction in price.

Confusion of contract and conveyance

Austin said: For example, by English law, the sale of a specific movable is a conveyance and transfers the right ''in rem''.

''Locatio conductio''

This is a letting to hire. This contract closely resembles that of ''emptio venditio'': it was complete by the mere consent of the parties, after which the letter had an ''actio locati'' for the hire, while the hirer's remedy was the ''actio conducti''. The ''locatio conductio'' might be: *''locatio conductio rei'': when one person let, and another hired, a thing; e.g.

rental Renting, also known as hiring or letting, is an agreement where a payment is made for the temporary use of a good, service or property owned by another. A gross lease is when the tenant pays a flat rental amount and the landlord pays for al ...

or tenancy (

leasehold A leasehold estate is an ownership of a temporary right to hold land or property in which a lessee or a tenant holds rights of real property by some form of title from a lessor or landlord. Although a tenant does hold rights to real property, a l ...

). *''locatio conductio operarum'': when one let his services, and another hired them; e.g.

employment Employment is a relationship between two parties regulating the provision of paid labour services. Usually based on a contract, one party, the employer, which might be a corporation, a not-for-profit organization, a co-operative, or any othe ...

indentured servitude Indentured servitude is a form of labor in which a person is contracted to work without salary for a specific number of years. The contract, called an "indenture", may be entered "voluntarily" for purported eventual compensation or debt repayment, ...

. *''locatio conductio operis (faciendi)'': where the letter contracted for a piece of work being done, and the hirer undertook to do the work; e.g. service contract or building contract ( subcontracting). In the case of leased land, the

landlord A landlord is the owner of a house, apartment, condominium, land, or real estate which is rented or leased to an individual or business, who is called a tenant (also a ''lessee'' or ''renter''). When a juristic person is in this position, the ...

could take

farm implements Agricultural equipment is any kind of machinery used on a farm to help with farming. The best-known example of this kind is the tractor. Tractor and power *Tractor / Two-wheel tractor *Tracked tractor / Caterpillar tractor Soil cultivati ...

and other property of the tenant by the ''actio Serviana''. The following contracts cannot properly be ranked as examples of ''locatio conductio'': *If the price of the hiring is not fixed, the contract is not ''locatio conductio'', but affords grounds for an action ''praescriptis verbis''. *If the consideration for the hiring was not a sum of money, but a loan for use (''commodatum'') granted to the letter, then this was regarded not as a ''locatio'', but as a transaction involving two loans, and an ''actio praescriptis verbis'' would be the remedy of either party. The contract of

emphyteusis Emphyteusis (Greek: implanting) is a contract for land that allows the holder the right to the enjoyment of a property, often in perpetuity, on condition of proper care, payment of tax and rent. The right encompasses assignment and of descent. His ...

, or perpetual lease at a fixed rent, which resembles both ''locatio conductio'' and ''emptio venditio'', was placed by Zeno in a class by itself. If a man agrees to make certain objects for another, this amounts to ''emptio venditio'' if he provides the materials, but if the materials are provided by the other, then the contract is a ''locatio''.

Rule as to the hirer's liability

The hirer was bound to take the greatest care of the thing hired, the same care as the most prudent ''

pater familias The ''pater familias'', also written as ''paterfamilias'' (plural ''patres familias''), was the head of a Roman family. The ''pater familias'' was the oldest living male in a household, and could legally exercise autocratic authority over his ext ...

'' his property. If the thing is stolen, the hirer is

liable In law, liable means "responsible or answerable in law; legally obligated". Legal liability concerns both civil law and criminal law and can arise from various areas of law, such as contracts, torts, taxes, or fines given by government agencie ...

; if taken ''vi'', that is, by superior force, he is not liable.Gordon Campbell, ''A Compendium of Roman Law'', 2nd edn. (Bell Yard, Temple Bar, London: Stevens and Haynes, 1892)
p 133

Termination and succession

The contract is terminated by the rent being two years in arrears in the case of land, by the misuse of the object hired, or by the death of a person from whom personal services are due. The heir succeeds to all the rights of a deceased hirer; the sale of the object, however, ended the contract, and the remedy of the hirer or his heir was only a personal action against the letter and not, as in the case of his having the

usufruct Usufruct () is a limited real right (or ''in rem'' right) found in civil-law and mixed jurisdictions that unites the two property interests of ''usus'' and ''fructus'': * ''Usus'' (''use'') is the right to use or enjoy a thing possessed, directl ...

, a real action.

''Societas''

''Societas'' is

partnership A partnership is an arrangement where parties, known as business partners, agree to cooperate to advance their mutual interests. The partners in a partnership may be individuals, businesses, interest-based organizations, schools, governments o ...

. A partnership may be formed either universally, when all the goods of the contracting parties are included in the partnership, or for a particular undertaking. Partners (''socii'') share the gains and losses equally, unless there is an agreement to the contrary; such an agreement would be valid. Partnership is ended: *By the withdrawal of any one of the partners. If, however, in the case of a universal partnership, a partner withdrew for the purpose of taking an

inheritance Inheritance is the practice of receiving private property, Title (property), titles, debts, entitlements, Privilege (law), privileges, rights, and Law of obligations, obligations upon the death of an individual. The rules of inheritance differ ...

or other gain in fraud of his co-partners, he would have to divide this with the others. *By the death of one of the partners. If there are more than two partners, the death of one dissolves the whole partnership, unless an agreement to the contrary is made previously. *By the accomplishment of the business for which the partnership was formed. *By the confiscation or forced sale (''publicatio'' or ''

cessio bonorum ''Cessio bonorum'' (Latin for a "surrender of goods"), in Roman law, is a voluntary surrender of goods by a debtor to his creditors. It did not amount to a discharge unless the property ceded was sufficient for the purpose, but it secured the debt ...

'') of the goods of one of the partners.

Forms of partnership

#''societas universorum bonorum'': universal partnership in which all the property of all the partners is held in common. #''societas universorum quae ex quaestu veniunt'' (''societas quaestus et compendii''): only for trade purposes; trade property only was held by the partners in common. #''societas negotiationis alicujus'': to carry out a particular enterprise or a special business. #''societas vectigalis'': to farm the public revenues. #''societas rei unius'': where a special object is owned in common.Gordon Campbell, ''A Compendium of Roman Law'', 2nd edn. (Bell Yard, Temple Bar, London: Stevens and Haynes, 1892)
p 134

Liability of the partners among themselves

A partner was bound to use the same care in dealing with the goods belonging to the partnership as he used in the management of his own affairs. The remedy between partners was the ''actio pro socio'', for all cases which did not fall within the actions, such as those ''furti'', ''vi bonorum raptorum'', etc. Partnerships were limited to gains in commerce, unless there was an agreement to the contrary. A partnership in which one partner took all the gains was styled ''leonina'', and was deemed invalid. See Poste's ''Gaius'', p 426.

''Mandatum''

''Mandatum'' is gratuitous

agency Agency may refer to: Organizations * Institution, governmental or others ** Advertising agency or marketing agency, a service business dedicated to creating, planning and handling advertising for its clients ** Employment agency, a business that ...

. By the old and strict Roman law, one person could not in theory represent another, but the contract of ''mandatum'' was an exception. The execution of a ''mandatum'' was the gratuitous performance of an act for another, the rights of both the mandator (principal) and the mandatary (agent) being amply protected by the praetors. A mandate might be for the benefit of the mandator only. For example: a mandate granted by A to B to buy an estate or transact business for A, or for the benefit of the mandatary and the mandator. For example: A mandate from a debtor to a creditor enabling the latter to stipulate for a debt due to the former. The debtor thus gets what is due to him collected, and the creditor has two persons to whom to apply for his money. Or, for the benefit of a third party; as, for example, if A manages the affairs of B in pursuance of a mandate from C. Or, for the benefit of the mandatary and a third party: for example, if A lends money to B at interest in pursuance of a mandate from C. But, mandate made for the benefit of the mandatary only is considered merely as a piece of advice from the mandator (or ''magis consilium est quam mandatum''). A mandate '' contra bonos mores'' is not obligatory. If the terms of the mandate are exceeded, the mandator is only responsible for what is authorized by the mandate. A mandate can be revoked before it has been performed. It is extinguished by the death of the mandator or mandatary; however, if the mandator's death is unknown to the mandatary he can still bring the ''actio mandati''. A mandate once accepted must be executed, unless some just cause supervenes to release the mandatary. A mandate may be made conditionally, or so as to take effect from a future time. Though the services were performed gratuitously under the contract, it was open to the benefited party to present the other with an

honorarium An honorarium is an ''ex gratia'' payment, i.e., a payment made, without the giver recognizing themselves as having any liability or legal obligation, to a person for his or her services in a volunteer capacity or for services for which fees are no ...

for his services.Gordon Campbell, ''A Compendium of Roman Law'', 2nd edn. (Bell Yard, Temple Bar, London: Stevens and Haynes, 1892)
p 135
& 136.

Quotes

*''Re, verbis, scripto, consensu, traditione, junctura vestes sumere pacta solent''. ::Compacts are accustomed to take their clothing from the subject matter, the words, the writing, the delivery and the consent or joining together. *''Scriptae obligationes scriptis tolluntur, et nudi consensus obligatio contrario consensu dissolvitur''. ::Written obligations are released or discharged by writings, and an obligation of mere consent is dissolved or discharged by a consent to the contrary.

References

*Amos, Sheldon. ''The History and Principles of the Civil Law of Rome''. London: Kegan Paul, Trench & Co., 1883. p
222
��244, 367. *Campbell, Gordon. ''A Compendium of Roman Law'', 2nd edn. Bell Yard, Temple Bar, London: Stevens and Haynes, 1892. * Maine, Henry Sumner. ''Ancient law: Its connection with the early history of society, and its relations to modern ideas''. London: John Murray, 1861, p. 333.

Notes

{{Reflist Latin legal terminology Roman law Contract law