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The social novel, also known as the social problem (or social protest) novel, is a "work of fiction in which a prevailing social problem, such as gender, race, or class
prejudice Prejudice can be an affective feeling towards a person based on their perceived group membership. The word is often used to refer to a preconceived (usually unfavourable) evaluation or classification of another person based on that person's per ...
, is dramatized through its effect on the characters of a novel". More specific examples of social problems that are addressed in such works include
poverty Poverty is the state of having few material possessions or little income. Poverty can have diverse social, economic, and political causes and effects. When evaluating poverty in ...
, conditions in factories and mines, the plight of
child labor Child labour refers to the exploitation of children through any form of work that deprives children of their childhood, interferes with their ability to attend regular school, and is mentally, physically, socially and morally harmful. Such e ...
, violence against women, rising criminality, and
epidemic An epidemic (from Ancient Greek, Greek ἐπί ''epi'' "upon or above" and δῆμος ''demos'' "people") is the rapid spread of disease to a large number of patients among a given population within an area in a short period of time. Epidemics ...
s because of over-crowding and poor sanitation in cities. Terms like thesis novel, propaganda novel, industrial novel, working-class novel and problem novel are also used to describe this type of novel; a recent development in this genre is the young adult problem novel. It is also referred to as the sociological novel. The social protest novel is a form of social novel which places an emphasis on the idea of social change, while the
proletarian novel Proletarian literature refers here to the literature created by left-wing writers mainly for the class-conscious proletariat. Though the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' states that because it "is essentially an intended device of revolution", it is t ...
is a political form of the social protest novel which may emphasize revolution. While early examples are found in 18th century Britain, social novels have been written throughout Europe and the United States.


Britain

Although this subgenre of the
novel A novel is a relatively long work of narrative fiction, typically written in prose and published as a book. The present English word for a long work of prose fiction derives from the for "new", "news", or "short story of something new", itsel ...
is usually seen as having its origins in the 19th century, there were precursors in the 18th century, like '' Amelia'' by
Henry Fielding Henry Fielding (22 April 1707 – 8 October 1754) was an English novelist, irony writer, and dramatist known for earthy humour and satire. His comic novel '' Tom Jones'' is still widely appreciated. He and Samuel Richardson are seen as founders ...
(1751), ''
Things as They Are; or, The Adventures of Caleb Williams ''Things as They Are; or The Adventures of Caleb Williams'' (1794; retitled ''The Adventures of Caleb Williams; or Things as They Are'' in 1831, and often abbreviated to ''Caleb Williams'') by William Godwin is a three-volume novel written as ...
'' (1794) by
William Godwin William Godwin (3 March 1756 – 7 April 1836) was an English journalist, political philosopher and novelist. He is considered one of the first exponents of utilitarianism and the first modern proponent of anarchism. Godwin is most famous for ...
, ''The Adventures of Hugh Trevor'' (1794–1797) by
Thomas Holcroft Thomas Holcroft (10 December 174523 March 1809) was an English dramatist, miscellanist, poet and translator. He was sympathetic to the early ideas of the French Revolution and helped Thomas Paine to publish the first part of ''The Rights of Ma ...
, and '' Nature and Art'' (1796) by
Elizabeth Inchbald Elizabeth Inchbald (née Simpson, 15 October 1753 – 1 August 1821) was an English novelist, actress, dramatist, and translator. Her two novels, '' A Simple Story'' and '' Nature and Art'', have received particular critical attention. Life Bo ...
. However, whereas Inchbald laid responsibility for social problems with the depravity and corruption of individuals, Godwin, in ''Caleb Williams'', saw society's corruption as insurmountable. In England during the 1830s and 1840s the social novel "arose out of the social and political upheavals which followed the
Reform Act of 1832 The Representation of the People Act 1832 (also known as the 1832 Reform Act, Great Reform Act or First Reform Act) was an Act of Parliament of the United Kingdom (indexed as 2 & 3 Will. IV c. 45) that introduced major changes to the electo ...
". This was in many ways a reaction to rapid
industrialization Industrialisation ( alternatively spelled industrialization) is the period of social and economic change that transforms a human group from an agrarian society into an industrial society. This involves an extensive re-organisation of an econo ...
, and the social, political and economic issues associated with it, and was a means of commenting on abuses of government and industry and the suffering of the poor, who were not profiting from England's economic prosperity. These works were directed at the middle class to help create sympathy and promote change. The social novel is also referred to as the "Condition-of-England novel". The term derives from the "
Condition-of-England Question The Condition-of-England question was a debate in the Victorian era over the issue of the English working-class during the Industrial Revolution. It was first proposed by Thomas Carlyle in his essay ''Chartism'' (1839). After assessing Chartism ...
", which was first raised by
Thomas Carlyle Thomas Carlyle (4 December 17955 February 1881) was a Scottish essayist, historian and philosopher. A leading writer of the Victorian era, he exerted a profound influence on 19th-century art, literature and philosophy. Born in Ecclefechan, Dum ...
in ''Chartism'' (1839) and expanded upon in ''Past and Present'' (1843) and ''
Latter-Day Pamphlets ''Latter-Day Pamphlets'' was a series of "pamphlets" published by Scottish essayist, historian and philosopher Thomas Carlyle in 1850,Carlyle, Thomas (1850)''Latter-Day Pamphlets.''London: Chapman & Hall. in vehement denunciation of what he be ...
'' (1850). The
Chartist movement Chartism was a working-class movement for political reform in the United Kingdom that erupted from 1838 to 1857 and was strongest in 1839, 1842 and 1848. It took its name from the People's Charter of 1838 and was a national protest movement, w ...
was a working-class political reformist movement that sought
universal male suffrage Universal manhood suffrage is a form of voting rights in which all adult male citizens within a political system are allowed to vote, regardless of income, property, religion, race, or any other qualification. It is sometimes summarized by the slog ...
and other parliamentary reforms. Chartism failed as a parliamentary movement; however, five of the "Six Points" of Chartism would become a reality within a century of the group's formation. "Condition-of-England novels sought to engage directly with the contemporary social and political issues with a focus on the representation of class, gender, and labour relations, as well as on social unrest and the growing antagonism between the rich and the poor in England". Authors wrote in response to Carlyle's warning that "if something be not done, something will do itself one day, and in a fashion that will please nobody." A significant early example of this genre is '' Sybil, or The Two Nations'', a novel by
Benjamin Disraeli Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield, (21 December 1804 – 19 April 1881) was a British statesman and Conservative politician who twice served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. He played a central role in the creation o ...
. Published in the same year, 1845, as
Friedrich Engels Friedrich Engels ( ,"Engels"
'' The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 ''The Condition of the Working Class in England'' (german: Die Lage der arbeitenden Klasse in England) is an 1845 book by the German philosopher Friedrich Engels, a study of the industrial working class in Victorian England. Engels' first book, ...
'', ''Sybil'' traces the plight of the working classes of England. Disraeli was interested in dealing with the horrific conditions in which the majority of England's working classes lived. The book is a
roman à thèse A ''Roman à thèse'' (French: 'thesis novel') is a novel which is didactic or which expounds a theory. Scholar Susan Suleiman talked about "authoritarian fiction" List of ''romans à thèse'' * '' Candide'' by Voltaire * '' Sybil'' by Benjam ...
, a novel with a thesis, which aimed to create a furor over the squalor that was plaguing England's working class cities. Disraeli's interest in this subject stemmed from his interest in the Chartist movement. Another early example of the social novel is
Charles Kingsley Charles Kingsley (12 June 1819 – 23 January 1875) was a broad church priest of the Church of England, a university professor, social reformer, historian, novelist and poet. He is particularly associated with Christian socialism, the working ...
's ''
Alton Locke ''Alton Locke'' is an 1850 novel, by Charles Kingsley, written in sympathy with the Chartist movement, in which Carlyle is introduced as one of the personages. Overview In this novel, Kingsley set out to expose the social injustice suffered b ...
'' (1849), a work that set out to expose the social injustice suffered by workers in the clothing trade as well as the trials and tribulations of agricultural labourers. It also gives an insight into the Chartist campaign with which Kingsley was involved in the 1840s.
Elizabeth Gaskell Elizabeth Cleghorn Gaskell (''née'' Stevenson; 29 September 1810 – 12 November 1865), often referred to as Mrs Gaskell, was an English novelist, biographer and short story writer. Her novels offer a detailed portrait of the lives of many st ...
's first industrial novel ''
Mary Barton ''Mary Barton: A Tale of Manchester Life'' is the first novel by English author Elizabeth Gaskell, published in 1848. The story is set in the English city of Manchester between 1839 and 1842, and deals with the difficulties faced by the Victori ...
'' (1848) deals with relations between employers and workers, but its narrative adopted the view of the working poor and describes the "misery and hateful passions caused by the love of pursuing wealth as well as the egoism, thoughtlessness and insensitivity of manufacturers". In ''
North and South North and South may refer to: Literature * ''North and South'' (Gaskell novel), an 1854 novel by Elizabeth Gaskell * ''North and South'' (trilogy), a series of novels by John Jakes (1982–1987) ** ''North and South'' (Jakes novel), first novel ...
'' (1854–55), her second industrial, or social novel, Gaskell returns to the precarious situation of workers and their relations with
industrialist A business magnate, also known as a tycoon, is a person who has achieved immense wealth through the ownership of multiple lines of enterprise. The term characteristically refers to a powerful entrepreneur or investor who controls, through perso ...
s, focusing more on the thinking and perspective of the employers. ''
Shirley Shirley may refer to: Arts and entertainment * ''Shirley'' (novel), an 1849 novel by Charlotte Brontë * ''Shirley'' (1922 film), a British silent film * ''Shirley'' (2020 film), an American film * ''Shirley'' (album), a 1961 album by Shirley Bas ...
'' (1849),
Charlotte Brontë Charlotte Brontë (, commonly ; 21 April 1816 – 31 March 1855) was an English novelist and poet, the eldest of the three Brontë sisters who survived into adulthood and whose novels became classics of English literature. She enlisted i ...
's second published novel after ''
Jane Eyre ''Jane Eyre'' ( ; originally published as ''Jane Eyre: An Autobiography'') is a novel by the English writer Charlotte Brontë. It was published under her pen name "Currer Bell" on 19 October 1847 by Smith, Elder & Co. of London. The first ...
'', is also a social novel. Set in
Yorkshire Yorkshire ( ; abbreviated Yorks), formally known as the County of York, is a Historic counties of England, historic county in northern England and by far the largest in the United Kingdom. Because of its large area in comparison with other Eng ...
in the period 1811–12, during the industrial depression resulting from the
Napoleonic Wars The Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815) were a series of major global conflicts pitting the French Empire and its allies, led by Napoleon I, against a fluctuating array of European states formed into various coalitions. It produced a period of Fren ...
and the
War of 1812 The War of 1812 (18 June 1812 – 17 February 1815) was fought by the United States of America and its indigenous allies against the United Kingdom and its allies in British North America, with limited participation by Spain in Florida. It bega ...
, the action in ''Shirley'' takes place against a backdrop of the
Luddite The Luddites were a secret oath-based organisation of English textile workers in the 19th century who formed a radical faction which destroyed textile machinery. The group is believed to have taken its name from Ned Ludd, a legendary weaver s ...
uprisings in the Yorkshire textile industry. Social problems are also an important concern in the novels of
Charles Dickens Charles John Huffam Dickens (; 7 February 1812 – 9 June 1870) was an English writer and social critic. He created some of the world's best-known fictional characters and is regarded by many as the greatest novelist of the Victorian e ...
, including in particular poverty and the unhealthy living conditions associated with it, the exploitation of ordinary people by money lenders, the corruption and incompetence of the legal system, as well as of the administration of the
Poor Law In English and British history, poor relief refers to government and ecclesiastical action to relieve poverty. Over the centuries, various authorities have needed to decide whose poverty deserves relief and also who should bear the cost of hel ...
. Dickens was a fierce critic of the poverty and
social stratification Social stratification refers to a society's categorization of its people into groups based on socioeconomic factors like wealth, income, race, education, ethnicity, gender, occupation, social status, or derived power (social and political). As ...
of Victorian society. In a New York address, he expressed his belief that, "Virtue shows quite as well in rags and patches as she does in purple and fine linen." Dickens's second novel, ''
Oliver Twist ''Oliver Twist; or, The Parish Boy's Progress'', Charles Dickens's second novel, was published as a serial from 1837 to 1839, and as a three-volume book in 1838. Born in a workhouse, the orphan Oliver Twist is bound into apprenticeship with ...
'' (1839), shocked readers with its images of poverty and crime: it destroyed middle class polemics about criminals, making any pretence to ignorance about what poverty entailed impossible.
Charles Dickens Charles John Huffam Dickens (; 7 February 1812 – 9 June 1870) was an English writer and social critic. He created some of the world's best-known fictional characters and is regarded by many as the greatest novelist of the Victorian e ...
's '' Hard Times'' (1854) is set in a small
Midlands The Midlands (also referred to as Central England) are a part of England that broadly correspond to the Kingdom of Mercia of the Early Middle Ages, bordered by Wales, Northern England and Southern England. The Midlands were important in the Ind ...
industrial town. It particularly criticizes the effect of
Utilitarianism In ethical philosophy, utilitarianism is a family of normative ethical theories that prescribe actions that maximize happiness and well-being for all affected individuals. Although different varieties of utilitarianism admit different charact ...
on the lives of the working classes in cities.
John Ruskin John Ruskin (8 February 1819 20 January 1900) was an English writer, philosopher, art critic and polymath of the Victorian era. He wrote on subjects as varied as geology, architecture, myth, ornithology, literature, education, botany and politi ...
declared ''Hard Times'' to be his favourite Dickens work due to its exploration of important social questions.
Walter Allen Walter Ernest Allen (23 February 1911 – 28 February 1995) was an English literary critic and novelist and one of the Birmingham Group of authors. He is best known for his classic study ''The English Novel: a Short Critical History'' (1951). ...
characterised ''Hard Times'' as being an unsurpassed "critique of industrial society", though later superseded by works of
D. H. Lawrence David Herbert Lawrence (11 September 1885 – 2 March 1930) was an English writer, novelist, poet and essayist. His works reflect on modernity, industrialization, sexuality, emotional health, vitality, spontaneity and instinct. His best-k ...
.
Karl Marx Karl Heinrich Marx (; 5 May 1818 – 14 March 1883) was a German philosopher, economist, historian, sociologist, political theorist, journalist, critic of political economy, and socialist revolutionary. His best-known titles are the 1848 ...
asserted that Dickens "issued to the world more political and social truths than have been uttered by all the professional politicians, publicists and moralists put together".. On the other hand,
George Orwell Eric Arthur Blair (25 June 1903 – 21 January 1950), better known by his pen name George Orwell, was an English novelist, essayist, journalist, and critic. His work is characterised by lucid prose, social criticism, opposition to totalitar ...
, in his essay on Dickens, wrote, "There is no clear sign that he wants the existing order to be overthrown, or that he believes it would make very much difference if it were overthrown. For in reality his target is not so much society as 'human nature'."


Continental Europe

Arguably,
Victor Hugo Victor-Marie Hugo (; 26 February 1802 – 22 May 1885) was a French Romantic writer and politician. During a literary career that spanned more than sixty years, he wrote in a variety of genres and forms. He is considered to be one of the great ...
's 1862 work ''
Les Misérables ''Les Misérables'' ( , ) is a French historical novel by Victor Hugo, first published in 1862, that is considered one of the greatest novels of the 19th century. In the English-speaking world, the novel is usually referred to by its original ...
'' was the most significant social protest novel of the 19th century in Europe. His work touches upon most of the political and social issues and artistic trends of his time.
Upton Sinclair Upton Beall Sinclair Jr. (September 20, 1878 – November 25, 1968) was an American writer, muckraker, political activist and the 1934 Democratic Party nominee for governor of California who wrote nearly 100 books and other works in seve ...
described the novel as "one of the half-dozen greatest novels of the world," and remarked that Hugo set forth the purpose of ''Les Misérables'' in the ''Preface'': Among other French writers,
Émile Zola Émile Édouard Charles Antoine Zola (, also , ; 2 April 184029 September 1902) was a French novelist, journalist, playwright, the best-known practitioner of the literary school of naturalism, and an important contributor to the development of ...
's realist fiction contained many social protest works, including ''
L'Assommoir ''L'Assommoir'' , published as a serial in 1876, and in book form in 1877, is the seventh novel in Émile Zola's twenty-volume series ''Les Rougon-Macquart''. Usually considered one of Zola's masterpieces, the novel — a study of alcoholism ...
'' (1877), which deals with life in an urban slum; and '' Germinal'' (1885), which is about a coal miners' strike. In his work-notes for the latter novel, Zola described it as posing what was to be the next century's, "'the twentieth century's most important question', namely the conflict between the forces of modern
Capitalism Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their operation for Profit (economics), profit. Central characteristics of capitalism include capital accumulation, competitive markets, pric ...
and the interests of the human beings necessary to its advance." Both Hugo and Zola were politically engaged, and suffered exile due to their political positions. Russian author
Leo Tolstoy Count Lev Nikolayevich TolstoyTolstoy pronounced his first name as , which corresponds to the romanization ''Lyov''. () (; russian: link=no, Лев Николаевич Толстой,In Tolstoy's day, his name was written as in pre-refor ...
championed reform for his own country, particularly in education. Tolstoy did not consider his most famous work, ''
War and Peace ''War and Peace'' (russian: Война и мир, translit=Voyna i mir; pre-reform Russian: ; ) is a literary work by the Russian author Leo Tolstoy that mixes fictional narrative with chapters on history and philosophy. It was first published ...
'', to be a novel (nor did he consider many of the great Russian fictions written at that time to be novels). This view becomes less surprising if one considers that Tolstoy was a novelist of the realist school who considered the novel to be a framework for the examination of social and political issues in nineteenth-century life. ''War and Peace'' (which was to Tolstoy really an epic in prose) therefore did not qualify. Tolstoy thought that ''
Anna Karenina ''Anna Karenina'' ( rus, «Анна Каренина», p=ˈanːə kɐˈrʲenʲɪnə) is a novel by the Russian author Leo Tolstoy, first published in book form in 1878. Widely considered to be one of the greatest works of literature ever writte ...
'' was his first true novel.


America

An early American example is
Harriet Beecher Stowe Harriet Elisabeth Beecher Stowe (; June 14, 1811 – July 1, 1896) was an American author and abolitionist. She came from the religious Beecher family and became best known for her novel ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' (1852), which depicts the harsh ...
's anti-slavery novel ''
Uncle Tom's Cabin ''Uncle Tom's Cabin; or, Life Among the Lowly'' is an anti-slavery novel by American author Harriet Beecher Stowe. Published in two volumes in 1852, the novel had a profound effect on attitudes toward African Americans and slavery in the U. ...
'' (1852). The terms "thesis novel" and "propaganda novel" are also used to describe it, because it is "strongly weighted to convert the reader to the author's stand" on the subject of slavery. There is an apocryphal tale told that when Stowe met
Abraham Lincoln Abraham Lincoln ( ; February 12, 1809 – April 15, 1865) was an American lawyer, politician, and statesman who served as the 16th president of the United States from 1861 until his assassination in 1865. Lincoln led the nation thro ...
in Washington in November 1862, the president greeted her by saying, "So you are the little woman who wrote the book that started this great war."
Mark Twain Samuel Langhorne Clemens (November 30, 1835 – April 21, 1910), known by his pen name Mark Twain, was an American writer, humorist, entrepreneur, publisher, and lecturer. He was praised as the "greatest humorist the United States has p ...
's work ''
Huckleberry Finn Huckleberry "Huck" Finn is a fictional character created by Mark Twain who first appeared in the book ''The Adventures of Tom Sawyer'' (1876) and is the protagonist and narrator of its sequel, ''Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'' (1884). He is 12 ...
'' (1884) is another early American social protest novel. Much of modern scholarship of ''Huckleberry Finn'' has focused on its treatment of race. Many Twain scholars have argued that the book, by humanizing Jim and exposing the fallacies of the racist assumptions of slavery, is an attack on racism. Others have argued that the book falls short on this score, especially in its depiction of Jim. According to Professor Stephen Railton of the
University of Virginia The University of Virginia (UVA) is a Public university#United States, public research university in Charlottesville, Virginia. Founded in 1819 by Thomas Jefferson, the university is ranked among the top academic institutions in the United S ...
, Twain was unable to fully rise above the stereotypes of Black people that white readers of his era expected and enjoyed, and therefore resorted to
minstrel show The minstrel show, also called minstrelsy, was an American form of racist theatrical entertainment developed in the early 19th century. Each show consisted of comic skits, variety acts, dancing, and music performances that depicted people spe ...
-style comedy to provide humor at Jim's expense, and ended up confirming rather than challenging late-19th century racist stereotypes.
John Steinbeck John Ernst Steinbeck Jr. (; February 27, 1902 – December 20, 1968) was an American writer and the 1962 Nobel Prize in Literature winner "for his realistic and imaginative writings, combining as they do sympathetic humor and keen social ...
's
Pulitzer Prize The Pulitzer Prize () is an award for achievements in newspaper, magazine, online journalism, literature, and musical composition within the United States. It was established in 1917 by provisions in the will of Joseph Pulitzer, who had made h ...
-winning 1939 novel ''
The Grapes of Wrath ''The Grapes of Wrath'' is an American realist novel written by John Steinbeck and published in 1939. The book won the National Book Award and Pulitzer Prize for fiction, and it was cited prominently when Steinbeck was awarded the Nobel Prize ...
'' often is cited as the most successful social protest novel of the 20th century. Part of its impact stemmed from its passionate depiction of the plight of the poor, and in fact, many of Steinbeck's contemporaries attacked his social and political views. Bryan Cordyack writes, "Steinbeck was attacked as a propagandist and a
socialist Socialism is a left-wing economic philosophy and movement encompassing a range of economic systems characterized by the dominance of social ownership of the means of production as opposed to private ownership. As a term, it describes the e ...
from both the left and the right of the political spectrum. The most fervent of these attacks came from the Associated Farmers of California; they were displeased with the book's depiction of California farmers' attitudes and conduct toward the migrants. They denounced the book as a 'pack of lies' and labeled it 'communist propaganda'. Some accused Steinbeck of exaggerating camp conditions to make a political point. Steinbeck had visited the camps well before publication of the novel and argued their inhumane nature destroyed the settlers' spirit. First Lady
Eleanor Roosevelt Anna Eleanor Roosevelt () (October 11, 1884November 7, 1962) was an American political figure, diplomat, and activist. She was the first lady of the United States from 1933 to 1945, during her husband President Franklin D. Roosevelt's four ...
championed Steinbeck's book against his detractors, and helped bring about Congressional hearings on the conditions in migrant farmer camps that led to changes in federal labor law.
Upton Sinclair Upton Beall Sinclair Jr. (September 20, 1878 – November 25, 1968) was an American writer, muckraker, political activist and the 1934 Democratic Party nominee for governor of California who wrote nearly 100 books and other works in seve ...
's 1906 novel ''
The Jungle ''The Jungle'' is a 1906 novel by the American journalist and novelist Upton Sinclair. Sinclair's primary purpose in describing the meat industry and its working conditions was to advance socialism in the United States. However, most readers wer ...
'', based on the meatpacking industry in
Chicago (''City in a Garden''); I Will , image_map = , map_caption = Interactive Map of Chicago , coordinates = , coordinates_footnotes = , subdivision_type = Country , subdivision_name ...
, was first published in serial form in the
socialist Socialism is a left-wing economic philosophy and movement encompassing a range of economic systems characterized by the dominance of social ownership of the means of production as opposed to private ownership. As a term, it describes the e ...
newspaper '' Appeal to Reason'' from February 25, 1905 to November 4, 1905. Sinclair had spent about six months investigating the Chicago meatpacking industry for ''Appeal to Reason'', work which inspired his novel. Sinclair intended to "set forth the breaking of human hearts by a system which exploits the labor of men and women for profit". His descriptions of the unsanitary and inhumane conditions that workers suffered served to shock and galvanize readers. The writer
Jack London John Griffith Chaney (January 12, 1876 – November 22, 1916), better known as Jack London, was an American novelist, journalist and activist. A pioneer of commercial fiction and American magazines, he was one of the first American authors to ...
called Sinclair's book "the ''
Uncle Tom's Cabin ''Uncle Tom's Cabin; or, Life Among the Lowly'' is an anti-slavery novel by American author Harriet Beecher Stowe. Published in two volumes in 1852, the novel had a profound effect on attitudes toward African Americans and slavery in the U. ...
'' of
wage slavery Wage slavery or slave wages refers to a person's dependence on wages (or a salary) for their livelihood, especially when wages are low, treatment and conditions are poor, and there are few chances of upward mobility. The term is often used ...
". Domestic and foreign purchases of American meat fell by half. The novel brought public support for Congressional legislation and government regulation of the industry, including passage of the
Meat Inspection Act The Federal Meat Inspection Act of 1906 (FMIA) is an American law that makes it illegal to adulterate or misbrand meat and meat products being sold as food, and ensures that meat and meat products are slaughtered and processed under strictly r ...
and the
Pure Food and Drug Act The Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906, also known as Dr. Wiley's Law, was the first of a series of significant consumer protection laws which was enacted by Congress in the 20th century and led to the creation of the Food and Drug Administration. ...
. A more recent social novel is Richard Wright's 1940 novel ''
Native Son ''Native Son'' (1940) is a novel written by the American author Richard Wright. It tells the story of 20-year-old Bigger Thomas, a black youth living in utter poverty in a poor area on Chicago's South Side in the 1930s. While not apologizing ...
''. Wright's protest novel was an immediate best-seller, selling 250,000 hardcover copies within three weeks of its publication by the
Book-of-the-Month Club Book of the Month (founded 1926) is a United States subscription-based e-commerce service that offers a selection of five to seven new hardcover books each month to its members. Books are selected and endorsed by a panel of judges, and members c ...
on March 1, 1940. It was one of the earliest successful attempts to explain the racial divide in America in terms of the social conditions imposed on African-Americans by the dominant white society. It also made Wright the wealthiest Black writer of his time and established him as a spokesperson for African-American issues, and the "father of Black American literature." As
Irving Howe Irving Howe (; June 11, 1920 – May 5, 1993) was an American literary and social critic and a prominent figure of the Democratic Socialists of America. Early years Howe was born as Irving Horenstein in The Bronx, New York. He was the son o ...
said in his 1963 essay "Black Boys and Native Sons," "The day ''Native Son'' appeared, American culture was changed forever. No matter how much qualifying the book might later need, it made impossible a repetition of the old lies .. andbrought out into the open, as no one ever had before, the hatred, fear, and violence that have crippled and may yet destroy our culture." However, the book was criticized by some of Wright's fellow African-American writers. James Baldwin's 1949 essay "Everybody's Protest Novel" dismissed ''Native Son'' as protest fiction, and therefore limited in its understanding of human character and its artistic value. James Baldwin's novels and plays fictionalize fundamental personal questions and dilemmas amid complex social and psychological pressures thwarting the equitable integration of not only Blacks yet also of male
homosexual Homosexuality is romantic attraction, sexual attraction, or sexual behavior between members of the same sex or gender. As a sexual orientation, homosexuality is "an enduring pattern of emotional, romantic, and/or sexual attractions" to peop ...
s, depicting as well some internalized impediments to such individuals' quest for acceptance, namely in his second novel, ''
Giovanni's Room ''Giovanni's Room'' is a 1956 novel by James Baldwin. Stryker, Susan. ''Queer Pulp: Perverted Passions from the Golden Age of the Paperback'' (San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 2001), p. 104. The book focuses on the events in the life of an Americ ...
'' (1956), written well before the equality of homosexuals was widely espoused in America. p. 158, pp. 148-200 Baldwin's best-known novel is his first, '' Go Tell It on the Mountain'' (1953).


Proletarian novel

The proletarian novel, according to the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' comes out of the direct experience of working class life and "is essentially an intended device of revolution", while works by middle-class novelists, like
William Godwin William Godwin (3 March 1756 – 7 April 1836) was an English journalist, political philosopher and novelist. He is considered one of the first exponents of utilitarianism and the first modern proponent of anarchism. Godwin is most famous for ...
's ''
Caleb Williams Caleb Williams (born November 18, 2001) is an American football quarterback for the USC Trojans. Williams played for the Oklahoma Sooners in 2021 before transferring to USC as a sophomore in 2022, where he won several player of the year awards, i ...
'' (1794) and
Charles Dickens Charles John Huffam Dickens (; 7 February 1812 – 9 June 1870) was an English writer and social critic. He created some of the world's best-known fictional characters and is regarded by many as the greatest novelist of the Victorian e ...
' '' Hard Times'', though they are sympathetic to the hardships experienced by worker, "are more concerned with the imposition of reform from above than with revolution from within". The Russian
Maksim Gorky Alexei Maximovich Peshkov (russian: link=no, Алексе́й Макси́мович Пешко́в;  – 18 June 1936), popularly known as Maxim Gorky (russian: Макси́м Го́рький, link=no), was a Russian writer and sociali ...
, is an example of a proletarian writer, however, in the
Soviet Union The Soviet Union,. officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR),. was a transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. A flagship communist state, it was nominally a federal union of fifteen national ...
the proletarian novel was doomed to disappear "in the form that Gorky knew, for it is the essence of the revolutionary novel to possess vitality and validity only when written under capitalist 'tyranny'". But the proletarian novel has also been categorized without any emphasis on revolution, as a novel "about the working classes and working-class life; perhaps with the intention of making propaganda", and this may reflect a difference between Russian, American and other traditions of working-class writing, with that of Britain (see below). The United States has had a number of working-class, socialist authors, such as
Jack London John Griffith Chaney (January 12, 1876 – November 22, 1916), better known as Jack London, was an American novelist, journalist and activist. A pioneer of commercial fiction and American magazines, he was one of the first American authors to ...
,
Upton Sinclair Upton Beall Sinclair Jr. (September 20, 1878 – November 25, 1968) was an American writer, muckraker, political activist and the 1934 Democratic Party nominee for governor of California who wrote nearly 100 books and other works in seve ...
, and
John Dos Passos John Roderigo Dos Passos (; January 14, 1896 – September 28, 1970) was an American novelist, most notable for his ''U.S.A.'' trilogy. Born in Chicago, Dos Passos graduated from Harvard College in 1916. He traveled widely as a young man, visit ...
. London wrote from a socialist viewpoint, which is evident in his novel ''
The Iron Heel ''The Iron Heel'' is a political novel in the form of science fiction by American writer Jack London, first published in 1908.Kershaw, Alex. ''Jack London: A Life''. London: HarperCollins, 1997: 164. Background The main premise of the book i ...
''. Neither a theorist nor an intellectual socialist, London's socialism grew out of his life experience. As London explained in his essay, "How I Became a Socialist", his views were influenced by his experience with people at the bottom of the social pit. His optimism and individualism faded, and he vowed never to do more hard physical work than necessary. He wrote that his individualism was hammered out of him, and he was politically reborn. He often closed his letters "Yours for the Revolution." During the 1930s and 1940s
Michael Gold Michael Gold (April 12, 1894 – May 14, 1967) was the pen-name of Jewish American writer Itzok Isaac Granich. A lifelong communist, Gold was a novelist and literary critic. His semi-autobiographical novel '' Jews Without Money'' (1930) was a b ...
(1894–1967) (the
pen-name A pen name, also called a ''nom de plume'' or a literary double, is a pseudonym (or, in some cases, a variant form of a real name) adopted by an author and printed on the title page or by-line of their works in place of their real name. A pen na ...
of
Jewish American American Jews or Jewish Americans are American citizens who are Jewish, whether by religion, ethnicity, culture, or nationality. Today the Jewish community in the United States consists primarily of Ashkenazi Jews, who descend from diaspora Je ...
writer Itzok Isaac Granich) was considered the pre-eminent author and editor of U.S.
proletarian literature Proletarian literature refers here to the literature created by left-wing writers mainly for the class-conscious proletariat. Though the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' states that because it "is essentially an intended device of revolution", it is ...
. A lifelong
communist Communism (from Latin la, communis, lit=common, universal, label=none) is a far-left sociopolitical, philosophical, and economic ideology and current within the socialist movement whose goal is the establishment of a communist society, a s ...
, Gold was a novelist and literary critic. His semi-
autobiographical novel An autobiographical novel is a form of novel using autofiction techniques, or the merging of autobiographical and fictive elements. The literary technique is distinguished from an autobiography or memoir by the stipulation of being fiction. ...
'' Jews without Money'' (1930) was a bestseller. Other American examples of the proletarian novel include
Agnes Smedley Agnes Smedley (February 23, 1892 – May 6, 1950) was an American journalist, writer, and activist who supported the Indian Independence Movement and the Chinese Communist Revolution. Raised in a poverty-stricken miner's family in Missouri and Co ...
's ''
Daughter of Earth ''Daughter of Earth'' (1929) is an autobiographical novel by the American author and journalist Agnes Smedley. The novel chronicles the years of Marie Rogers's tumultuous childhood, struggles in relationships with men (both physical and emotional) ...
'' (1929),
Robert Cantwell Robert Emmett Cantwell (January 31, 1908 – December 8, 1978), known as Robert Cantwell, was a novelist and critic. His first novel, ''Laugh and Lie Down'' (1931) is an early example, twenty years before Jack Kerouac, of the American classic ge ...
's ''Land of Plenty'' (1934),
Albert Halper Albert Halper (1904–1984) was an American novelist and playwright. Life Albert Halper was born on a kitchen table on the west side of Chicago on August 3, 1904, the son of Lithuanian immigrants from Vilna. His father, Isaac, owned a series o ...
's ''The Foundry'' (1934) and
Albert Maltz Albert Maltz (; October 28, 1908 – April 26, 1985) was an American playwright, fiction writer and screenwriter. He was one of the Hollywood Ten who were jailed in 1950 for their 1947 refusal to testify before the US Congress about their invol ...
's ''The Underground Stream'' (1940); other writers include
James T. Farrell James Thomas Farrell (February 27, 1904 – August 22, 1979) was an American novelist, short-story writer and poet. He is most remembered for the ''Studs Lonigan'' trilogy, which was made into a film in 1960 and a television series in 1979. B ...
,
Josephine Herbst Josephine Herbst (March 5, 1892 – January 28, 1969) was an American writer and journalist, active from 1923 to near the time of her death. She was a radical with communist leanings, who "incorporate the philosophy of socialism into her ficti ...
,
Tillie Olsen Tillie may refer to: __NOTOC__ Places in the United States * Tillie, Kentucky, an unincorporated community * Tillie, Pennsylvania, a former populated place * Tillie Creek, California People * Tillie (name), a given name and surname Animal * Tilli ...
, and
Meridel Le Sueur Meridel Le Sueur (February 22, 1900, Murray, Iowa – November 14, 1996, Hudson, Wisconsin) was an American writer associated with the proletarian literature movement of the 1930s and 1940s. Born as Meridel Wharton, she assumed the name of her mot ...
. However, the British tradition of working class writing was not solely inspired by the
Communist Party A communist party is a political party that seeks to realize the socio-economic goals of communism. The term ''communist party'' was popularized by the title of ''The Manifesto of the Communist Party'' (1848) by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. A ...
, as it also involved
socialists Socialism is a left-wing economic philosophy and movement encompassing a range of economic systems characterized by the dominance of social ownership of the means of production as opposed to private ownership. As a term, it describes the eco ...
and
anarchists Anarchism is a political philosophy and movement that is skeptical of all justifications for authority and seeks to abolish the institutions it claims maintain unnecessary coercion and hierarchy, typically including, though not necessari ...
. Furthermore, writing about the British working-class writers, H Gustav Klaus, in ''The Socialist Novel: Towards the Recovery of a Tradition'', as long ago as 1982, suggested that "the once current erm'proletarian' is, internationally, on the retreat, while the competing concepts of 'working class' and 'socialist' continue to command about equal adherence". The word proletarian is sometimes, however, used to describe works about the working class by actual working class authors, to distinguish them from works by middle class authors, like
Charles Dickens Charles John Huffam Dickens (; 7 February 1812 – 9 June 1870) was an English writer and social critic. He created some of the world's best-known fictional characters and is regarded by many as the greatest novelist of the Victorian e ...
's '' Hard Times'' and
Henry Green Henry Green was the pen name of Henry Vincent Yorke (29 October 1905 – 13 December 1973), an English writer best remembered for the novels '' Party Going'', ''Living'' and ''Loving''. He published a total of nine novels between 1926 and 1952 ...
's ''Living''.
Walter Greenwood Walter Greenwood (17 December 1903 – 13 September 1974) was an English novelist, best known for the socially influential novel ''Love on the Dole'' (1933). Early life Greenwood was born at 56 Ellor Street, his father's house and hairdres ...
's ''
Love on the Dole ''Love on the Dole'' is a novel by Walter Greenwood, about working-class poverty in 1930s Northern England. It has been made into both a play and a film. The novel Walter Greenwood's novel (1933) was written during the early 1930s as a respons ...
'' (1933) has been described as an "excellent example" of an English proletarian novel It was written during the early 1930s as a response to the crisis of unemployment, which was being felt locally, nationally, and internationally. It is set in Hanky Park, an industrial slum in
Salford Salford () is a city and the largest settlement in the City of Salford metropolitan borough in Greater Manchester, England. In 2011, Salford had a population of 103,886. It is also the second and only other city in the metropolitan county afte ...
, where Greenwood was born and brought up. The novel begins around the time of the
General Strike A general strike refers to a strike action in which participants cease all economic activity, such as working, to strengthen the bargaining position of a trade union or achieve a common social or political goal. They are organised by large co ...
of 1926, but its main action takes place in 1931.


Young adult problem novel

The young adult problem novel deals with an adolescent's first confrontation with a social, or personal problem. The term was first used this way in the late 1960s with reference to contemporary works like '' The Outsiders'', a
coming-of-age novel In literary criticism, a ''Bildungsroman'' (, plural ''Bildungsromane'', ) is a literary genre that focuses on the psychological and moral growth of the protagonist from childhood to adulthood ( coming of age), in which character change is imp ...
by
S. E. Hinton Susan Eloise Hinton (born July 22, 1948) is an American writer best known for her young-adult novels (YA) set in Oklahoma, especially '' The Outsiders'' (1967), which she wrote during high school. Hinton is credited with introducing the YA genr ...
, first published in 1967. The adolescent problem novel is rather loosely defined. Rose Mary Honnold in ''The Teen Reader's Advisor'' defines them as dealing more with characters from lower-class families and their problems; and as using "grittier", more realistic language, including dialects, profanity, and poor grammar, when it fits the character and setting. Hinton's ''The Outsiders'' (1967) and
Paul Zindel Paul Zindel Jr. (May 15, 1936 – March 27, 2003) was an American playwright, young adult novelist, and educator. Early life Zindel was born in Tottenville, Staten Island, New York, to Paul Zindel Sr., a policeman, and Betty Zindel, a nurse; h ...
's ''
The Pigman ''The'' () is a grammatical article in English, denoting persons or things already mentioned, under discussion, implied or otherwise presumed familiar to listeners, readers, or speakers. It is the definite article in English. ''The'' is the ...
'' (1968) are problem novels written specifically for teenagers. However,
Sheila Egoff Sheila Agnes Egoff (January 20, 1918 – May 22, 2005) was a Canadian librarian, literary critic, and historian who was Canada's first professor of children's literature. A recipient of the Order of Canada, she was known for her studies of chil ...
notes in ''Thursday's Child: Trends and Patterns in Contemporary Children's Literature'' that the
Newbery Award The John Newbery Medal, frequently shortened to the Newbery, is a literary award given by the Association for Library Service to Children (ALSC), a division of the American Library Association (ALA), to the author of "the most distinguished contr ...
-winning novel ''
It's Like This, Cat ''It's Like This, Cat'' is a novel by American writer Emily Cheney Neville, which won the Newbery Medal for excellence in American children's literature in 1964. ''It's Like This, Cat'' was Neville's first book. Plot summary The main character ...
'' (1963) by Emily Cheney Neville may have established "the problem novel formula". ''Go Ask Alice'' (1971) is an early example of the subgenre and is often considered an example of the negative aspects of the form (although the author is "Anonymous", it is largely or wholly the work of its purported editor, Beatrice Sparks). A more recent example is Adam Rapp's ''The Buffalo Tree'' (1997).


Other social novels

* ''Bleak House'' by
Charles Dickens Charles John Huffam Dickens (; 7 February 1812 – 9 June 1870) was an English writer and social critic. He created some of the world's best-known fictional characters and is regarded by many as the greatest novelist of the Victorian e ...
(1853) focuses on the corrupt, inefficient English legal system, and comments on the suffering of the poor. * ''Little Dorrit'' by Charles Dickens (1857) is a work of satire on the shortcomings of the government and society of the period. * ''Felix Holt'' by George Eliot (1866) is a social novel written about political disputes in a small English town at the time of the Reform Act 1832, First Reform Act of 1832. * ''The Outpost (Prus novel), The Outpost'' by Bolesław Prus (1886), written in a Poland that had been partitioned a century earlier by Russia, Prussia and Austria, portrays the plight of rural Poland, contending with poverty, ignorance, neglect by the upper crust, and colonization by Germany, German settlers backed by Otto von Bismarck's German government. * ''Out of Work'' (1888) by Margaret Harkness: "In her slum novels, Margaret Harkness highlighted such social problems as social degradation, poverty, philanthropy, and oppression of women". * ''The Doll (novel), The Doll'' by Bolesław Prus (1889) draws a comprehensive, compelling picture of late-19th century Partitions of Poland, partitioned Poland, mired in societal inertia. * ''Sister Carrie'' by Theodore Dreiser (1900) is an influential example of Naturalism (literature), Naturalism and a major American urban fiction, urban novel. Amongst other things it explores how industrialization affected the American people. * ''The Ragged Trousered Philanthropists'' (1914) by Robert Tressell is an explicitly political work, widely regarded as a classic of working-class literature. * ''U.S.A. Trilogy'' by
John Dos Passos John Roderigo Dos Passos (; January 14, 1896 – September 28, 1970) was an American novelist, most notable for his ''U.S.A.'' trilogy. Born in Chicago, Dos Passos graduated from Harvard College in 1916. He traveled widely as a young man, visit ...
: ''The 42nd Parallel'' (1930), ''1919'' (1932), and ''The Big Money'' (1936). In the 1930s Dos Passos was a social revolutionary who saw the United States as two nations, one rich and one poor. In 1928, he spent several months in Russia studying their
socialist Socialism is a left-wing economic philosophy and movement encompassing a range of economic systems characterized by the dominance of social ownership of the means of production as opposed to private ownership. As a term, it describes the e ...
system, and he was a leading participator in the April 1935 First American Writers Congress sponsored by the Communist Party USA, Communist-leaning League of American Writers. * ''Studs Lonigan Trilogy'' by
James T. Farrell James Thomas Farrell (February 27, 1904 – August 22, 1979) was an American novelist, short-story writer and poet. He is most remembered for the ''Studs Lonigan'' trilogy, which was made into a film in 1960 and a television series in 1979. B ...
: ''Young Lonigan'' (1932), ''The Young Manhood of Studs Lonigan'' (1934), ''Judgment Day (novel), Judgment Day'' (1935). Farrell wrote these three novels during the Great Depression, at a time of national despair, with the intention of exposing the evils of capitalism and desiring a total overhaul of the American political and economic system. * ''To Have and Have Not'' by Ernest Hemingway (1936) is a social commentary on the 1930s, that was heavily influenced by Marxism, Marxist ideology, as Hemingway was on the side of the Republican faction (Spanish Civil War), Republicans in the Spanish Civil War as he was writing it. * ''Johnny Got His Gun'' by Dalton Trumbo (1939) is an anti-war novel written in 1938 by American novelist and screenwriter Dalton Trumbo. The novel won one of the early List of National Book Award winners#1935 to 1941, National Book Awards: the Most Original Book of 1939."1939 Book Awards Given by Critics: Elgin Groseclose's 'Ararat' is Picked ...", ''The New York Times'', 1940-02-14, page 25. ProQuest Historical Newspapers The New York Times (1851-2007). * ''Blood on the Forge'' by William Attaway (1941) provides social commentary on African-American experiences during the early twentieth century, particularly for those who joined the Great Migration (African American), Great Migration northward from the miseries of sharecropping, only to be met with brutal treatment in the mills of the industrializing north. * ''Invisible Man'' by Ralph Ellison (1952) addresses many of the social and intellectual issues facing African-Americans in the mid-twentieth century, including Black nationalism, the relationship between Black identity and Marxism, and the reformist racial policies of Booker T. Washington, as well as issues of individuality and personal identity. * ''Burger's Daughter'' (1979) by Nadine Gordimer. Many of Gordimer's works have explored the impact of apartheid on individuals in South Africa. In ''Burger's Daughter'' a theme, that is present in several of her novels, is that of racially divided societies in which well-meaning whites unexpectedly encounter a side of Black life they did not know about.Gardner, Susan (1990). "A Story for This Place and Time: An Interview with Nadine Gordimer about Burger's Daughter". In Bazin, Nancy Topping; Seymour, Marilyn Dallman. Conversations with Nadine Gordimer. Univ. Press of Mississippi. pp. 161–175. * ''The Man Who Wouldn't Stand Up'' (2012) by Jacob M. Appel addresses efforts to suppress freedom of expression during the war on terror. * Notably ''Demons (Dostoyevsky novel), Demons'' (1862) by Fyodor Dostoevsky as well as ''The House of the Dead (novel), House of the Dead'', ''Notes from Underground'', ''Crime and Punishment'', ''The Brothers Karamazov'', but nearly every novel, short story, and journal written by Dostoevsky after his imprisonment in Siberia for anti-government activity is classifiable as such.


See also

* Dystopia * Illegitimacy in fiction * Political fiction * Problem play * Proletarian literature * Social science fiction


Notes


Further reading

* Childers, Joseph W. "Industrial culture and the Victorian novel". In ''The Cambridge Companion to the Victorian Novel'' (David, Deirde, ed.), Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2001. () * Gallagher, Catherine. ''The Industrial Reformation of English Fiction: Social Discourse and Narrative Form, 1832–1867''. Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1985. * Haywood, Ian, ''Working-Class Fiction: from Chartism to "Trainspotting"''. Plymouth: Nortcote House, 1997. * * Kestner, Joseph A(1985) "Protest and reform: the British social narrative by women, 1827-1867" Blackwell Publishing. * Kettle, Arnold. "The Early Victorian Social-Problem Novel", in: Boris Ford, ed. ''The New Pelican Guide to English Literature. From Dickens to Hardy''. (vol. 6). Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1990. * Klaus, H. Gustav, ''The Literature of Labour: Two Hundred Years of Working-Class Writing''. Brighton: Harvester, 1985. * Klaus, H. Gustav and Knight, Steven, eds. ''British Industrial Fictions''. Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 2000. * Lindner C. "Outside Looking In: Material Culture in Gaskell's Industrial Novels" ''Orbis Litterarum'', Volume 55, Number 5, 1 October 2000, pp. 379–396(18) * Lukàcs, Georg. ''Studies in European Realism''. New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1964. * Morris, Pam. "Imagining inclusive society in nineteenth-century novels: the code of sincerity in the public sphere" JHU Press, 2004. * Murphy, James F.: ''The Proletarian Moment.'' University of Illinois Press, Urbana, Ill 1991. * Tillotson, Kathleen. ''Novels of the Eighteen Forties''. London: Oxford University Press, 1954. * Vargo, Gregory. "An Underground History of Early Victorian Fiction: Chartism, Radical Print Culture, and the Social Problem Novel." Cambridge University Press, 2018. * Williams, Raymond. ''Culture and Society, 1780–1950.'' New York, Columbia University Press, 1958. * York, R.A. "Strangers and Secrets: Communication in the Nineteenth-century Novel". Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press, 1994. ;Young adult problem fiction * Julia Eccleshare, "Teenage Fiction: Realism, romances, contemporary problem novels". In Peter Hunt, ed.. ''International Companion Encyclopedia of Children's Literature''. London: Routledge,1996, pp. 387–396. *
Sheila Egoff Sheila Agnes Egoff (January 20, 1918 – May 22, 2005) was a Canadian librarian, literary critic, and historian who was Canada's first professor of children's literature. A recipient of the Order of Canada, she was known for her studies of chil ...
, "The Problem Novel". In Shiela Egoff, ed. ''Only Connect: readings on children's literature'' (2nd ed.). Ontario: Oxford University Press; 1980, pp. 356–369, and "The Problem Novel". ''Thursday's Child: Trends and Patterns in Contemporary Children's Literature''. Chicago: American Library Association, 1981. * Isaac Gilman, "Shutting the Window: The Loss of Innocence in Twentieth-Century Children's Literature". ''The Looking Glass'', 9 (3), September 2005. * Alleen Pace Nilsen, "That Was Then ... This Is Now". ''School Library Journal'', 40 (4): April 1994, pp. 62–70.


External links

* See: Thomas Carlyle's
The Condition of England
'

by Priya Shetty, ''New Scientist'', 14 January 2009. Subscription needed * https://web.archive.org/web/20090222034241/http://www.readbookonline.net/title/275/ {{DEFAULTSORT:Social Novel Literary genres Social novels,