The Soanian culture is a prehistoric technological culture from the
Siwalik Hills
The Sivalik Hills, also known as the Shivalik Hills and Churia Hills, are a mountain range of the outer Himalayas that stretches over about from the Indus River eastwards close to the Brahmaputra River, spanning the northern parts of the India ...
in the
Indian subcontinent
The Indian subcontinent is a list of the physiographic regions of the world, physiographical region in United Nations geoscheme for Asia#Southern Asia, Southern Asia. It is situated on the Indian Plate, projecting southwards into the Indian O ...
.
[ Quote: “Soanian and Soanian‐like assemblages are known throughout the entire Siwalik or Sub‐ Himalayan region, from Pakistan to northeast India including Nepal...”] It is named after the
Soan Valley
The Soan River ( ur, ), also referred to as the Swan, Sawan, or Sohan, is a river in Punjab, Pakistan.
Location and geography
The Soan River is a stream in the Pothohar or North Punjab region of Pakistan, and drains much of the water of Potho ...
in
Pakistan
Pakistan ( ur, ), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan ( ur, , label=none), is a country in South Asia. It is the world's List of countries and dependencies by population, fifth-most populous country, with a population of almost 24 ...
. Soanian sites are found along the Siwalik region in present-day
India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
,
Nepal
Nepal (; ne, नेपाल ), formerly the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal ( ne,
सङ्घीय लोकतान्त्रिक गणतन्त्र नेपाल ), is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is mai ...
and
Pakistan
Pakistan ( ur, ), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan ( ur, , label=none), is a country in South Asia. It is the world's List of countries and dependencies by population, fifth-most populous country, with a population of almost 24 ...
.
[Chauhan, Parth R., ''An Overview of the Siwalik Acheulian & Reconsidering Its Chronological Relationship with the Soanian – A Theoretical Perspective''.] The Soanian culture has been approximated to have taken place during the
Middle Pleistocene
The Chibanian, widely known by its previous designation of Middle Pleistocene, is an age in the international geologic timescale or a stage in chronostratigraphy, being a division of the Pleistocene Epoch within the ongoing Quaternary Period. The ...
period or the
mid-Holocene epoch (
Northgrippian
In the geologic time scale, the Northgrippian is the middle one of three ages or stages of the Holocene Epoch or Series. It was officially ratified by the International Commission on Stratigraphy in June 2018 along with the earlier Greenlandia ...
).
Debates still goes on today regarding the exact period occupied by the culture due to artefacts often being found in non-datable surface context.
This culture was first discovered and named by the anthropology and archaeology team led by
Helmut De Terra Helmut de Terra (4 July 1900 in Guben, Germany – 22 July 1981 in Bern, Switzerland) was a German geologist, explorer, archaeologist, author and anthropologist.
Biography
Early life
Helmut de Terra was born in Germany in 1900 of a family of F ...
and
Thomas Thomson Paterson.
Soanian artifacts were manufactured on quartzite
pebble
A pebble is a clast of rock with a particle size of based on the Udden-Wentworth scale of sedimentology. Pebbles are generally considered larger than granules ( in diameter) and smaller than cobbles ( in diameter). A rock made predominant ...
s,
cobbles
Cobblestone is a natural building material based on cobble-sized stones, and is used for pavement roads, streets, and buildings.
Setts, also called Belgian blocks, are often casually referred to as "cobbles", although a sett is distinct fro ...
, and occasionally on
boulder
In geology, a boulder (or rarely bowlder) is a rock fragment with size greater than in diameter. Smaller pieces are called cobbles and pebbles. While a boulder may be small enough to move or roll manually, others are extremely massive.
In c ...
s, all derived from various
fluvial sources
on the
Siwalik
The Sivalik Hills, also known as the Shivalik Hills and Churia Hills, are a mountain range of the outer Himalayas that stretches over about from the Indus River eastwards close to the Brahmaputra River, spanning the northern parts of the Indi ...
landscape. Soanian assemblages generally comprise varieties of
choppers
Chopper may refer to:
Arts and entertainment
* Chopper (comics), ''Chopper'' (comics), a horror comic book mini-series
* Chopper (film), ''Chopper'' (film), a 2000 Australian film by and about Mark "Chopper" Read
* Chopper (Judge Dredd), Chopper ...
, discoids,
scrapers,
cores, and numerous flake type tools, all occurring in varying typo-technological frequencies at different sites.
Excluding some localities in the Soan Valley of Pakistan, the site complex of Guler (Beas Valley) and Toka in India, and the Arjun-3 site in Nepal, Soanian and similar assemblages rarely comprise more than a few dozen artifacts.
The emergence of Soanian tools has been tied to the local development of boulder conglomerate formation through prehistoric
tectonic
Tectonics (; ) are the processes that control the structure and properties of the Earth's crust and its evolution through time. These include the processes of mountain building, the growth and behavior of the strong, old cores of continents k ...
processes that created convenient transporting system for raw materials.
Recent researches have been focusing on the technological culture’s connection with the
Harappan culture
The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC), also known as the Indus Civilisation was a Bronze Age civilisation in the northwestern regions of South Asia, lasting from 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE, and in its mature form 2600 BCE to 1900&n ...
that originated near the
Indus River
The Indus ( ) is a transboundary river of Asia and a trans-Himalayan river of South and Central Asia. The river rises in mountain springs northeast of Mount Kailash in Western Tibet, flows northwest through the disputed region of Kashmir, ...
.
Dating and historical significance
The prehistoric dating of Soanian culture is one that has been debated by scholars due to artefacts being often found in undatable surface contexts.
Some argue it is a culture developed by ancient extinct hominids;
homo erectus
''Homo erectus'' (; meaning "upright man") is an extinct species of archaic human from the Pleistocene, with its earliest occurrence about 2 million years ago. Several human species, such as '' H. heidelbergensis'' and '' H. antecessor' ...
.
Others have suggested it is the creation of a group of deurbanized population derived from the
Harappan civilization near the
Indus alluvial plain.
Its artefacts are often found near those of
Acheulian culture, which is a
homo erectus
''Homo erectus'' (; meaning "upright man") is an extinct species of archaic human from the Pleistocene, with its earliest occurrence about 2 million years ago. Several human species, such as '' H. heidelbergensis'' and '' H. antecessor' ...
culture that took place around the same sub-Himalayan culture zone.
There is currently no evidence of the two cultures ever crossing path and is believed to have existed in different timeframe.
There are currently two main interpretations towards the prehistoric timeframe occupied by the Soanian culture. One sees the Soanian culture as a period that took place in three connecting intervals throughout
Middle Pleistocene
The Chibanian, widely known by its previous designation of Middle Pleistocene, is an age in the international geologic timescale or a stage in chronostratigraphy, being a division of the Pleistocene Epoch within the ongoing Quaternary Period. The ...
period (774,000 to 129,000 years ago).
The other sees the Soanian culture as a period of single distinct technological culture that may have existed earliest from the mid-
Holocene
The Holocene ( ) is the current geological epoch. It began approximately 11,650 cal years Before Present (), after the Last Glacial Period, which concluded with the Holocene glacial retreat. The Holocene and the preceding Pleistocene togethe ...
epoch with some artefacts potentially belonging to the Harappan culture.
Three-interval period theory
According to this view, Soanian technological culture evolved throughout three broad intervals during the Middle Pleistocene period from circa 774,000 to 129,000 years ago.
Scholars of this view believe the technological culture potentially belonged to the ancient hominid group:
homo erectus
''Homo erectus'' (; meaning "upright man") is an extinct species of archaic human from the Pleistocene, with its earliest occurrence about 2 million years ago. Several human species, such as '' H. heidelbergensis'' and '' H. antecessor' ...
.
The three intervals are known as Pre-Soan, Early Soan, and Late-Soan. The exact dating of these periods is unknown due to tools often being found in undateable surface contexts.
This view is developed out of Helmut de Terra and Thomas Thomson Paterson’s early work in the Siwalik region.
Paterson, in analysing the terrace sequence along the Soan valley in Pakistan, believed that several Soanian technological phases existed within the
glacial
A glacial period (alternatively glacial or glaciation) is an interval of time (thousands of years) within an ice age that is marked by colder temperatures and glacier advances. Interglacials, on the other hand, are periods of warmer climate betw ...
and
interglacial
An interglacial period (or alternatively interglacial, interglaciation) is a geological interval of warmer global average temperature lasting thousands of years that separates consecutive glacial periods within an ice age. The current Holocene in ...
period.
Pre-Soan and Early Soanian tools are considered as mostly heavy-duty tools like choppers and core scrapers derived from Lower paleolithic technological culture of the region.
These tools contrast with Late-Soan tools which consist of flake tools that are smaller in sizes and for finer purposes.
Single distinct technological culture
Scholars of this view suggest Soanian technology did not evolve in three intervals, but rather all belong to one distinct period in early homo sapien history during the mid-Holocene epoch.
Scholars began to question the three-interval theory when both early Soanian tools and Late-Soanians tools started to be found together along the same undatable sites.
To continue, the Soan river ‘terraces’ observed by de Terra and Paterson were later discovered to be erosional features rather than terrace sequences that would suggest the prehistorical timing of the artefacts.
Second, new findings by the father and son duo Anujot Singh Soni and Vidwan Singh Soni have found Soanian tools on datatable sites near Northwestern sub-Himalaya.
These sites were dated to be from mid to late mid-Holocene.
On some of the sites, potsherds and weathered red ware with coarse fabric were also discovered.
These artefacts are believed to have belonged to the Harappan civilization that later lived in villages on the sub-Himalayas.
These are early human civilizations that emerged from antecedent agricultural communities of hills bouldering the Indus alluvial plain.
Anthropological relation to homo sapiens
Anatomically modern humans
Early modern human (EMH) or anatomically modern human (AMH) are terms used to distinguish ''Homo sapiens'' (the only extant Hominina species) that are anatomically consistent with the range of phenotypes seen in contemporary humans from extin ...
(i.e. ''Homo sapiens'') are believed to emerge from Africa within the Soanian time period around 300,000 years ago, its been argued that their ways of life changed relatively little from that of
archaic humans
A number of varieties of ''Homo'' are grouped into the broad category of archaic humans in the period that precedes and is contemporary to the emergence of the earliest early modern humans (''Homo sapiens'') around 300 ka. Omo-Kibish I (Omo I) f ...
of the
Middle Paleolithic
The Middle Paleolithic (or Middle Palaeolithic) is the second subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age as it is understood in Europe, Africa and Asia. The term Middle Stone Age is used as an equivalent or a synonym for the Middle Paleoli ...
. It would remain this way until about 50,000 years ago, when discoveries of a marked increase in the diversity of
artefacts found were associated with modern human remains.
Geographical context
![Soan River near Chakri](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/Soan_River_near_Chakri.jpg)
The Soanian culture is in the Western part of the
Sub-Himalayan terrain, stretching between
river Indus
The Indus ( ) is a transboundary river of Asia and a trans-Himalayan river of South and Central Asia. The river rises in mountain springs northeast of Mount Kailash in Western Tibet, flows northwest through the disputed region of Kashmir, ...
and
Yamuna
The Yamuna (Hindustani language, Hindustani: ), also spelt Jumna, is the second-largest tributary river of the Ganges by discharge and the longest tributary in List of major rivers of India, India. Originating from the Yamunotri Glacier at a ...
.
This area is the major producer of Soanian artefacts. The occurrence of this technological culture has been correlated to the prehistoric geographical changes in the region that allowed prehistoric humans easy access to raw materials.
This view is often hypothesized to have been the result of boulder conglomerate formation in the
Siwalik
The Sivalik Hills, also known as the Shivalik Hills and Churia Hills, are a mountain range of the outer Himalayas that stretches over about from the Indus River eastwards close to the Brahmaputra River, spanning the northern parts of the Indi ...
region between 0.7 to 1.7 million years ago.
These formations are collections of large rocks made of small fragments that have been deposed through tectonic processes, they can look like levitated ranges or hills.
The tectonic process also formed rivers and
fluvial
In geography and geology, fluvial processes are associated with rivers and streams and the deposits and landforms created by them. When the stream or rivers are associated with glaciers, ice sheets, or ice caps, the term glaciofluvial or fluviog ...
systems that carried and collected raw materials, such as distal
alluvial fan
An alluvial fan is an accumulation of sediments that fans outwards from a concentrated source of sediments, such as a narrow canyon emerging from an escarpment. They are characteristic of mountainous terrain in arid to semiarid climates, but a ...
s and proximal distal braided stream systems.
In the Siwalik region, the dominant raw materials available are quartzite pebbles, cobbles, and boulders.
From 1.6 million years ago onwards, the existing boulder conglomerate formation saw more changes that further contributed to easy access of raw materials for local ancient humans. Further tectonic movements and
erosion
Erosion is the action of surface processes (such as water flow or wind) that removes soil, rock, or dissolved material from one location on the Earth's crust, and then transports it to another location where it is deposited. Erosion is distin ...
saw the Siwalik fluvial courses altered –developing more complex river systems, and deposits that carried and collected sediments.
This also contributed to new drainage systems formed by new alluvial conditions in the South Siwalik region.
These new developments allowed for the easy access of materials and prevents the need for long-distance transport.
This geographical context the Soanian culture developed from is known to scholars as the Post-Boulder Conglomerate Formation period.
Scholars of the single interval period argue Soanian tools are developed due to the movement of the
Harappan culture
The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC), also known as the Indus Civilisation was a Bronze Age civilisation in the northwestern regions of South Asia, lasting from 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE, and in its mature form 2600 BCE to 1900&n ...
.
During the
mid-Holocene global arid phase, when water supply starts to dry up across the globe, the Harappans who were originally around the
Indus valley
The Indus ( ) is a transboundary river of Asia and a trans-Himalayan river of South and Central Asia. The river rises in mountain springs northeast of Mount Kailash in Western Tibet, flows northwest through the disputed region of Kashmir, ...
mostly shifted to the sub-Himalayas in search of water sources.
This led to the diminishing of the broad trading system of resources within the civilization that included materials like metal.
As a result, Harappans started to manufacture tools using stones that are later discovered to be Soanian tools.
This period has been viewed as a process of deurbanization of the Harappan culture, where they began to decrease in size, turning into smaller village-type settlements.
On a broader geographical context, Soanian culture is one of many different lithic cultures in Southeast Asia that are also abundantly available in Sub-Himalayas.
Many unifacial flake tools belonging to the
Hoabinhian
Hoabinhian is a lithic techno-complex of archaeological sites associated with assemblages in Southeast Asia from late Pleistocene to Holocene, dated to c.10,000–2000 BCE. It is attributed to hunter-gatherer societies of the region and their ...
s are discovered near Soanian sites.
These tools are also found throughout
Nepal
Nepal (; ne, नेपाल ), formerly the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal ( ne,
सङ्घीय लोकतान्त्रिक गणतन्त्र नेपाल ), is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is mai ...
, South China,
Taiwan
Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia, at the junction of the East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, with the People's Republic of China (PRC) to the northwest, Japan to the nort ...
and
Australia
Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a Sovereign state, sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous List of islands of Australia, sma ...
.
Another prominent lithic culture in the region belongs to the Acheulians, which are distinguished by the preference for bifacial tools.
Post-Siwalik fluvial deposits
Most of the post-Siwalik fluvial deposits today are mostly disintegrated, they currently lie above older decomposed sedimentary deposits.
Some of them are covered in thick vegetation. These sites stand in contrast with remaining deposits that still stand today, forming basin like structures.
Technologies
![Neolithic lithic scraper (FindID 989389)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Neolithic_lithic_scraper_%28FindID_989389%29.jpg)
Understandings for the technological development of Soanian tools have been limited due to most sites rarely comprising more than a few dozen artefacts.
The technologies of Soanian culture are stone based and are often described as non-bifacial assemblages.
These tools are categorized based on their unifacial nature with a singular flat surface.
Soanian assemblages generally comprise varieties of
choppers
Chopper may refer to:
Arts and entertainment
* Chopper (comics), ''Chopper'' (comics), a horror comic book mini-series
* Chopper (film), ''Chopper'' (film), a 2000 Australian film by and about Mark "Chopper" Read
* Chopper (Judge Dredd), Chopper ...
, discoids, scrapers, cores, and numerous flake type tools.
These tools are mainly for heavy duty, but also have finer purposes as seen in some flake tools used for cutting.
These tools are often manufactured on quartzite pebbles, cobbles, and occasionally from boulders.
With Soanian technologies being limited, tools often remain similar in shape and sizes to their sourced materials.
Soanian technological culture differ largely from other pre-historic culture in the region. Other cultures found in Siwalik like the Ancheulian are often described to be of bi-facial nature and focused on hand axes.
The comparison between other culture of the same region has seen Soanian technology categorized as a continuation of archaic technology rather than
Neolithic
The Neolithic period, or New Stone Age, is an Old World archaeological period and the final division of the Stone Age. It saw the Neolithic Revolution, a wide-ranging set of developments that appear to have arisen independently in several parts ...
.
This is due to Soanian culture often being isolated within the mountainous region away from plain populations who have access to more materials.
Perspective of the singlular interval scholars
Scholars of the singular interval period view the development of Soanian technology as a result of the deurbanization of the
Harappan culture
The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC), also known as the Indus Civilisation was a Bronze Age civilisation in the northwestern regions of South Asia, lasting from 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE, and in its mature form 2600 BCE to 1900&n ...
.
This group was originally thought to have had large trading networks with intricate tools, as well as their own scripting system.
However, due to the change of climate during the mid-Holocene epoch, many original settlements collapsed in search of water and have been reduced in size.
The group began adopting tools that were more easily accessible.
Excavation history and current studies
The Western Sub-Himalaya and the
Siwalik Hills
The Sivalik Hills, also known as the Shivalik Hills and Churia Hills, are a mountain range of the outer Himalayas that stretches over about from the Indus River eastwards close to the Brahmaputra River, spanning the northern parts of the India ...
first caught the interest of archaeologists and palaeontologists in the early 1800s when fossil apes of the
Miocene
The Miocene ( ) is the first geological epoch of the Neogene Period and extends from about (Ma). The Miocene was named by Scottish geologist Charles Lyell; the name comes from the Greek words (', "less") and (', "new") and means "less recen ...
age were uncovered.
This led to interests from Western scholars to explore the region for potential pre-historic cultural artefacts. The first official discovery of lithic artifacts in the Western Sub-Himalaya zone was reported in 1880 by Theobald W, in a report titled: “On the discovery of a celt of Palaeolithic type in the Punjab”.
Discoveries in the Siwalik Hills for paleolithic lithic occurrences were first noted by Wadia and K.R.U Todd.
Their research influenced the academic duo of
Helmut De Terra Helmut de Terra (4 July 1900 in Guben, Germany – 22 July 1981 in Bern, Switzerland) was a German geologist, explorer, archaeologist, author and anthropologist.
Biography
Early life
Helmut de Terra was born in Germany in 1900 of a family of F ...
and
Thomas Thomson Paterson to conduct their own research in the region.
De Terra and Paterson deemed the artefacts found in Siwalik belonged to a specific technological culture that they named “Soanian”.
They did not conduct any excavation but only focused on selectively collected surface materials from surrounding terraces.
This work confirmed lithic occurrence specific to the region and prompted further research.
Excavations later followed suit outside of India, taking place in Pakistan and Nepal that further confirms the existence of pre-historic culture in the Siwalik zone.
Modern research
Recent research predominantly takes place in India led by Indian scholars with a broader scope.
As of 2006, the study area encompassed the Siwalik frontal slopes and some interior zones between the
Ghaggar River
The Ghaggar-Hakra River is an intermittent river in India and Pakistan that flows only during the monsoon season. The river is known as Ghaggar in India, before the Ottu barrage, and as the Hakra in Pakistan, downstream of the barrage, ending ...
to the west and Markanda River to the east.
The area is approximately 60 km long and covers an area of approximately 100 km square.
Research area in Pakistan along the Soan river has faced damages due to sewage disposal and municipal waste onto rivers.
Methods for modern day excavation have also changed from the time of De Terra. During his time, scholars focused more on assessing the scattering patterns of tools in smaller sampled regions.
Modern observations due to technological developments are focused on the occurrence of Soanian tools as a complex behavioural system.
This method entails the careful surveying and recording of artefacts along vast regions, seeking to understand the spatial relationship each lithic culture has with one another.
This form of observation has allowed scholars to observe the relations of the emergence of certain tools to certain geographical contexts.
At
Adiala
Adiala or Adyala(Urdu: اڈیالہ) is a town of Rawalpindi District in the Punjab (Pakistan), Punjab province of Pakistan. It is located at 33°27'30N 72°59'48E with an altitude of 379 metres (1246 ft), and lies south of the district capital, Ra ...
and
Khasala Kalan
Khasala Kalan is a village of Rawalpindi District in the Punjab province of Pakistan
Pakistan ( ur, ), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan ( ur, , label=none), is a country in South Asia. It is the world's fifth-most populous c ...
, about from
Rawalpindi
Rawalpindi ( or ; Urdu, ) is a city in the Punjab province of Pakistan. It is the fourth largest city in Pakistan after Karachi, Lahore and Faisalabad, and third largest in Punjab after Lahore and Faisalabad. Rawalpindi is next to Pakistan's ...
terrace on the bend of the river, hundreds of edged pebble tools were discovered. At
Chauntra
Chauntra is a small market town in the state of Himachal Pradesh in northern India located along National Highway 20 (Updated 154) which connects Pathankot (in Punjab) to Mandi. It is also home to a Tibetan refugee community consisting of a set ...
in
Himachal Pradesh
Himachal Pradesh (; ; "Snow-laden Mountain Province") is a state in the northern part of India. Situated in the Western Himalayas, it is one of the thirteen mountain states and is characterized by an extreme landscape featuring several peaks ...
,
hand axe
A hand axe (or handaxe or Acheulean hand axe) is a prehistoric stone tool with two faces that is the longest-used tool in human history, yet there is no academic consensus on what they were used for. It is made from stone, usually flint or che ...
s and cleavers were found. Tools up to two million years old have been recovered. In the Soan River Gorge, many
fossil
A fossil (from Classical Latin , ) is any preserved remains, impression, or trace of any once-living thing from a past geological age. Examples include bones, shells, exoskeletons, stone imprints of animals or microbes, objects preserved ...
bearing rocks are exposed on the surface. 14 million year old fossils of
gazelle
A gazelle is one of many antelope species in the genus ''Gazella'' . This article also deals with the seven species included in two further genera, '' Eudorcas'' and '' Nanger'', which were formerly considered subgenera of ''Gazella''. A third ...
,
rhinoceros
A rhinoceros (; ; ), commonly abbreviated to rhino, is a member of any of the five extant species (or numerous extinct species) of odd-toed ungulates in the family Rhinocerotidae. (It can also refer to a member of any of the extinct species o ...
,
crocodile
Crocodiles (family (biology), family Crocodylidae) or true crocodiles are large semiaquatic reptiles that live throughout the tropics in Africa, Asia, the Americas and Australia. The term crocodile is sometimes used even more loosely to inclu ...
,
giraffe
The giraffe is a large African hoofed mammal belonging to the genus ''Giraffa''. It is the tallest living terrestrial animal and the largest ruminant on Earth. Traditionally, giraffes were thought to be one species, ''Giraffa camelopardalis ...
and
rodent
Rodents (from Latin , 'to gnaw') are mammals of the order Rodentia (), which are characterized by a single pair of continuously growing incisors in each of the upper and lower jaws. About 40% of all mammal species are rodents. They are na ...
s have been found there. Some of these fossils are on display at the
Pakistan Museum of Natural History
Pakistan Museum of Natural History (PMNH), ( ur, ) established in 1976, is a public natural history museum situated in Islamabad, the federal capital of Pakistan.
It has exhibits and galleries which display and provide information about the ecol ...
in
Islamabad
Islamabad (; ur, , ) is the capital city of Pakistan. It is the country's ninth-most populous city, with a population of over 1.2 million people, and is federally administered by the Pakistani government as part of the Islamabad Capital T ...
.
See also
*
South Asian Stone Age
The South Asian Stone Age covers the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic periods in South Asia. Evidence for the most ancient ''Homo sapiens'' in South Asia has been found in the cave sites of Cudappah of India, Batadombalena and Belilena in ...
*
Madrasian culture
The Madrasian culture is a prehistoric archaeological culture of the Indian subcontinent, dated to the Lower Paleolithic, the earliest subdivision of the Stone Age. It belongs to the Acheulian industry, and some scholars consider the distinction b ...
References
Further reading
*
*
*
*
*
*
*{{cite book
, author=Kenneth Oakley
, title=Frameworks for Dating Fossil Man
, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qrmOwp2swlgC&pg=PA223
, access-date=21 August 2011
, date=30 April 2007
, publisher=Transaction Publishers
, isbn=978-0-202-30960-6
, pages=223–
External links
The Acheulian/Soanian dichotomy
Archaeological cultures in India
Paleolithic
Archaeology in Pakistan
Archaeology of India
Archaeology of Nepal