''Smriti'' ( sa, स्मृति,
IAST
The International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration (IAST) is a transliteration scheme that allows the lossless romanisation of Indic scripts as employed by Sanskrit and related Indic languages. It is based on a scheme that emerged during ...
: '), literally "that which is remembered" are a body of
Hindu
Hindus (; ) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism.Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pages 35–37 Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for ...
texts usually attributed to an author, traditionally written down, in contrast to
Śruti
''Shruti'' ( sa, श्रुति, , ) in Sanskrit means "that which is heard" and refers to the body of most authoritative, ancient religious texts comprising the central canon of Hinduism. Manusmriti states: ''Śrutistu vedo vijñeyaḥ'' ( ...
s (the Vedic literature) considered authorless, that were transmitted verbally across the generations and fixed.
[Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty (1988), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, Manchester University Press, , pages 2-3] ''Smriti'' is a derivative secondary work and is considered less authoritative than ''Sruti'' in Hinduism, except in the
Mimamsa school of
Hindu philosophy
Hindu philosophy encompasses the philosophies, world views and teachings of Hinduism that emerged in Ancient India which include six systems ('' shad-darśana'') – Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa and Vedanta.Andrew Nicholson (20 ...
.
[James Lochtefeld (2002), "Smrti", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N–Z, Rosen Publishing, , page 656-657][ The authority of ''smriti'' accepted by orthodox schools, is derived from that of ''shruti'', on which it is based.]
The Smrti literature is a corpus of diverse varied texts.[ This corpus includes, but is not limited to the six Vedāngas (the auxiliary sciences in the Vedas), the epics (the ]Mahābhārata
The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; sa, महाभारतम्, ', ) is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India in Hinduism, the other being the ''Rāmāyaṇa''. It narrates the struggle between two groups of cousins in the Kuruk ...
and Rāmāyana
The ''Rāmāyana'' (; sa, रामायणम्, ) is a Sanskrit epic composed over a period of nearly a millennium, with scholars' estimates for the earliest stage of the text ranging from the 8th to 4th centuries BCE, and later stages ...
), the Dharmasūtras and Dharmaśāstra
''Dharmaśāstra'' ( sa, धर्मशास्त्र) is a genre of Sanskrit texts on law and conduct, and refers to the treatises (shastras, śāstras) on dharma. Unlike Dharmasūtra which are based upon Vedas, these texts are mainly b ...
s (or Smritiśāstras), the Arthasaśāstras, the Purānas
Purana (; sa, , '; literally meaning "ancient, old"Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature (1995 Edition), Article on Puranas, , page 915) is a vast genre of Indian literature about a wide range of topics, particularly about legends an ...
, the Kāvya or poetical literature, extensive ''Bhasyas'' (reviews and commentaries on ''Shrutis'' and non-Shruti texts), and numerous ''Nibandhas'' (digests) covering politics, ethics (''Nitisastras''),[ culture, arts and society.][Purushottama Bilimoria (2011), The idea of Hindu law, Journal of Oriental Society of Australia, Vol. 43, pages 103-130][Roy Perrett (1998), Hindu Ethics: A Philosophical Study, University of Hawaii Press, , pages 16-18]
Each Smriti text exists in many versions, with many different readings.[ Smritis were considered fluid and freely rewritten by anyone in ancient and medieval Hindu tradition.][Sheldon Pollock (2011), Boundaries, Dynamics and Construction of Traditions in South Asia (Editor: Federico Squarcini), Anthem, , pages 41-58]
Etymology
''Smrti'' is a Sanskrit word, from the root Smara (स्मर), which means "remembrance, reminiscence, thinking of or upon, calling to mind", or simply "memory".[smRti]
Monier-Williams' Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, Germany The word is found in ancient Vedic literature, such as in section 7.13 of the Chandogya Upanishad
The ''Chandogya Upanishad'' (Sanskrit: , IAST: ''Chāndogyopaniṣad'') is a Sanskrit text embedded in the Chandogya Brahmana of the Sama Veda of Hinduism.Patrick Olivelle (2014), ''The Early Upanishads'', Oxford University Press; , pp. 166-16 ...
. In later and modern scholarly usage, the term refers to tradition, memory, as well as a vast post-Vedic canon of "tradition that is remembered".[ David Brick states that the original meaning of smriti was simply tradition, and not texts.
''Smriti'' is also a symbolic synonym for number 18, from the 18 scholars who are credited in Indian tradition for writing dharma-related smriti texts (most have been lost).][ These 18 smritis are namely,
# Atri,
# Viṣṇu,
# Hārīta,
# Auśanasī,
# Āngirasa,
# Yama,
# Āpastamba,
# Samvartta,
# Kātyāyana,
# Bṛhaspati,
# Parāśara,
# Vyāsa,
# Śaṅkha,
# Likhita,
# Dakṣa,
# Gautama,
# Śātātapa and
# Vaśiṣṭha.
Yājñavalkya gives the list of total 20 by adding two more Smritis, namely, Yājñavalkyasmriti and ]Manusmriti
The ''Manusmṛiti'' ( sa, मनुस्मृति), also known as the ''Mānava-Dharmaśāstra'' or Laws of Manu, is one of the many legal texts and constitution among the many ' of Hinduism. In ancient India, the sages often wrote their ...
. Parāśara whose name appears in this list, enumerates also twenty authors, but instead of Samvartta, Bṛhaspati, and Vyāsa, he gives the names of Kaśyapa, Bhṛgu and Prachetas.
In linguistic traditions, ''Smrti'' is the name of a type of verse meter. In Hindu mythology, ''Smriti'' is the name of the daughter of ''Dharma'' and ''Medha''.
In scholarly literature, Smriti is also spelled as ''Smṛti''.
Texts
''Smrtis'' represent the remembered, written tradition in Hinduism.[ The Smrti literature is a vast corpus of derivative work. All ''Smriti'' texts are regarded to ultimately be rooted in or inspired by ''Shruti''.][
The ''Smrti'' corpus includes, but is not limited to:]
#The six Vedāngas (grammar, meter, phonetics, etymology, astronomy and rituals),[
#The ]Itihasa
Itihasa () refers to the collection of written descriptions of important events in Hinduism. It includes the Mahabharata, the Puranas and the Ramayana. The Mahabharata includes the story of the Kurukshetra War and preserves the traditions of ...
(literally means "so indeed it was"), Epics (the Mahābhārata and Rāmāyana),[Gerald Larson (1993)]
The Trimūrti of Smṛti in classical Indian thought
Philosophy East and West, Vol. 43, No. 3, pages 373-388
#The texts on the four proper goals or aims of human life:[Tadeusz Skorupski (1988), Review: Manu Swajambhuwa, Manusmryti, Czyli Traktat o Zacności; Watsjajana Mallanga, Kamasutra, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland (New Series), Volume 120, Issue 1, pages 208-209]
##Dharma
Dharma (; sa, धर्म, dharma, ; pi, dhamma, italic=yes) is a key concept with multiple meanings in Indian religions, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism and others. Although there is no direct single-word translation for '' ...
: These texts discuss ''dharma'' from various religious, social, duties, morals and personal ethics perspective. Each of six major schools of Hinduism has its own literature on dharma. Examples include Dharma-sutras (particularly by Gautama
Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism.
According to Buddhist tradition, he was born in Lu ...
, Apastamba
''Āpastamba Dharmasūtra'' (Sanskrit: आपस्तम्ब धर्मसूत्र) is a Sanskrit text and one of the oldest Dharma-related texts of Hinduism that have survived into the modern age from the 1st-millennium BCE. It is one of ...
, Baudhayana
The (Sanskrit: बौधायन) are a group of Vedic Sanskrit texts which cover dharma, daily ritual, mathematics and is one of the oldest Dharma-related texts of Hinduism that have survived into the modern age from the 1st-millennium BCE. Th ...
and Vāsiṣṭha
Vasishtha ( sa, वसिष्ठ, IAST: ') is one of the oldest and most revered Vedic rishis or sages, and one of the Saptarishis (seven great Rishis). Vashistha is credited as the chief author of Mandala 7 of the '' Rigveda''. Vashishtha ...
) and Dharma-sastras (particularly Manusmṛti
The ''Manusmṛiti'' ( sa, मनुस्मृति), also known as the ''Mānava-Dharmaśāstra'' or Laws of Manu, is one of the many legal texts and constitution among the many ' of Hinduism. In ancient India, the sages often wrote their ...
, Yājñavalkya Smṛti
The ''Yajnavalkya Smriti'' ( sa, याज्ञवल्क्य स्मृति, IAST: ') is one of the many Dharma-related texts of Hinduism composed in Sanskrit. It is dated between the 3rd to 5th-century CE, and belongs to the Dharmas ...
, Nāradasmṛti
is a part of the Dharmaśāstras, written about 2400 years ago in two recensions the south India Naradamanusamhita and Nepal, in Newari language that serves as a collection of legal maxims relating to the topic of dharma. This text is purely j ...
and Viṣṇusmṛti
Vishnu Smriti (IAST: ) is one of the latest books of the Dharmaśāstra tradition in Hinduism and the only one which does not deal directly with the means of knowing dharma. The text has a strong bhakti orientation, requiring daily puja to the g ...
). At the personal dharma level, this includes many chapters of Yogasutras
The ''Yoga Sutras of Patañjali'' is a collection of Sanskrit sutras (aphorisms) on the theory and practice of yoga – 195 sutras (according to Vyāsa and Krishnamacharya) and 196 sutras (according to others, including BKS Iyengar). The ''Y ...
.
##Artha
''Artha'' (; sa, अर्थ; Tamil: ''poruḷ'' / ''பொருள்'') is one of the four aims of human life in Indian philosophy.James Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Rosen Publishing, New York, , pp 55–56 T ...
: Artha-related texts discuss ''artha'' from individual, social and as a compendium of economic policies, politics and laws. For example, the ''Arthashastra
The ''Arthashastra'' ( sa, अर्थशास्त्रम्, ) is an Ancient Indian Sanskrit treatise on statecraft, political science, economic policy and military strategy. Kautilya, also identified as Vishnugupta and Chanakya, is ...
'' of Chanakya
Chanakya (Sanskrit: चाणक्य; IAST: ', ; 375–283 BCE) was an ancient Indian polymath who was active as a teacher, author, strategist, philosopher, economist, jurist, and royal advisor. He is traditionally identified as Kauṭilya o ...
, the Kamandakiya Nitisara, Brihaspati Sutra, and Sukra Niti. Olivelle states that most Artha-related treatises from ancient India have been lost.
##Kama
''Kama'' (Sanskrit ) means "desire, wish, longing" in Hindu, Buddhist, Jain, and Sikh literature.Monier Williamsकाम, kāmaMonier-Williams Sanskrit English Dictionary, pp 271, see 3rd column Kama often connotes sensual pleasure, sexual ...
: These discuss arts, emotions, love, erotics, relationships and other sciences in the pursuit of pleasure. The Kamasutra
The ''Kama Sutra'' (; sa, कामसूत्र, , ; ) is an ancient Indian Sanskrit text on sexuality, eroticism and emotional fulfillment in life. Attributed to Vātsyāyana, the ''Kama Sutra'' is neither exclusively nor predominantly ...
of Vātsyāyana
Vātsyāyana was an ancient Indian philosopher, known for authoring the ''Kama Sutra''. He was a brahmin, and lived in India during the second or third century CE, probably in Pataliputra (modern day Patna in Bihar).
He is not to be confused w ...
is most well known. Others texts include Ratirahasya
The ''Ratirahasya'' (Sanskrit ) (translated in English as ''Secrets of Love'', also known as the ''Koka Shastra'') is a medieval Indian sex manual written by Kokkoka, a poet, who is variously described as Koka or Koka Pundit. The exact date of i ...
, Jayamangala, Smaradipika, Ratimanjari, Ratiratnapradipika, Ananga Ranga
The ''Ananga Ranga'' ( hi, अनंगरंग, lit=Stage of Love) or ''Kamaledhiplava'' ( hi, link=no, कमलेधिप्लव, lit=Boat in the Sea of Love) is an Indian sex manual written by Kalyana malla in the 15th or 16th century. T ...
among others.
##Moksha
''Moksha'' (; sa, मोक्ष, '), also called ''vimoksha'', ''vimukti'' and ''mukti'', is a term in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism for various forms of emancipation, enlightenment, liberation, and release. In its soteriology, ...
: These develop and debate the nature and process of liberation, freedom and spiritual release. Major treatises on the pursuit of moksa include the later Upanishad
The Upanishads (; sa, उपनिषद् ) are late Vedic Sanskrit texts that supplied the basis of later Hindu philosophy.Wendy Doniger (1990), ''Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism'', 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, , ...
s (early Upanishads are considered ''Sruti'' literature), Vivekachudamani
The ''Vivekachudamani'' (; IAST: ) is an introductory treatise within the Advaita Vedanta tradition of Hinduism, traditionally attributed to Adi Shankara of the eighth century, though this attribution has been questioned and mostly rejected by ...
, and the sastras on Yoga
Yoga (; sa, योग, lit=yoke' or 'union ) is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India and aim to control (yoke) and still the mind, recognizing a detached witness-consciou ...
.
#The Purānas (literally, "of old"),[
#The Kāvya or poetical literature,][
#The extensive ''Bhasyas'' (reviews and commentaries on ''Shrutis'' and non-Shruti texts),][
#The sutras and shastras of the various schools of Hindu philosophy
#The numerous ''Nibandhas'' (digests) covering politics, medicine ('']Caraka Samhita
The ''Charaka Samhita'' (, “Compendium of ''Charaka''”) is a Sanskrit text on Ayurveda (Indian traditional medicine). Along with the '' Sushruta Samhita'', it is one of the two foundational texts of this field that have survived from ancie ...
''), ethics (''Nitisastras''),[ culture, arts and society.][
]
The structure of Smriti texts
The ''Smrti'' texts structurally branched, over time, from so-called the "limbs of the Vedas", or auxiliary sciences for perfecting grammar and pronunciation (part of Vedāngas).[Gavin Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, , pages 53-56] For example, the attempt to perfect the art of rituals led to the science of ''Kalpa'', which branched into three Kalpa-sūtras: Srauta-sūtras, Grhya-sūtras, and Dharma-sūtras (estimated to have been composed between 600-200 BCE). The Srauta-sutras became texts describing the perfect performance of public ceremonies (solemn community yajna
Yajna ( sa, यज्ञ, yajña, translit-std=IAST, sacrifice, devotion, worship, offering) refers in Hinduism to any ritual done in front of a sacred fire, often with mantras.SG Nigal (1986), Axiological Approach to the Vedas, Northern Book ...
s), the Grhya-sutras described perfect performance of home ceremonies and domestic rites of passage, and Dharma-sutras described jurisprudence, rights and duties of individuals in four Ashrama stages of life, and social ethics.[ The Dharma-sūtras themselves became the foundations for a large canon of texts, and branched off as numerous Dharma-sastra texts.][
Jan Gonda states that the initial stages of Smriti texts structurally developed in the form of a new prose genre named Sūtras, that is "aphorism, highly compact precise expression that captured the essence of a fact, principle, instruction or idea".][ This brevity in expression, states Gonda, was likely necessitated by the fact that writing technology had not developed yet or was not in vogue, in order to store a growing mass of knowledge, and all sorts of knowledge was transferred from one generation to the next through the process of memorization, verbal recitation and listening in the 1st millennium BCE. Compressed content allowed more essential, densely structured knowledge to be memorized and verbally transferred to the next generation in ancient India.][Jan Gonda (1977), The Ritual Sutras, in A History of Indian Literature: Veda and Upanishads, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, , pages 466-474]
Role of Smriti in Hindu Law
''Smrtis'' contribute to exposition of the Hindu Dharma
Dharma (; sa, धर्म, dharma, ; pi, dhamma, italic=yes) is a key concept with multiple meanings in Indian religions, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism and others. Although there is no direct single-word translation for '' ...
but are considered less authoritative than ''Śruti
''Shruti'' ( sa, श्रुति, , ) in Sanskrit means "that which is heard" and refers to the body of most authoritative, ancient religious texts comprising the central canon of Hinduism. Manusmriti states: ''Śrutistu vedo vijñeyaḥ'' ( ...
s'' (the Vedic corpus that includes early Upanishads).
Earliest Smriti on Hindu Law: Dharma-sūtras
The root texts of ancient Hindu jurisprudence and law are the ''Dharma-sūtras''. These express that Shruti, Smriti and Acara are sources of jurisprudence and law.[ The precedence of these sources is declared in the opening verses of each of the known, surviving Dharma-sūtras. For example,][
]
Later Smriti on Hindu Law: Dharma-smriti
The ''Smritis'', such as Manusmriti, Naradasmriti, Yajnavalkya Smrti and Parashara Smriti, expanded this definition, as follows,
The Yajnavalkya Smriti includes four Vedas, six Vedangas, Purana, Nyaya, Mimamsa and other sastras, in addition to the ethical conduct of the wise, as sources of knowledge and through which sacred law can be known. It explains the scope of the Dharma as follows,
Levinson states that the role of ''Shruti'' and ''Smriti'' in Hindu law is as a source of guidance, and its tradition cultivates the principle that "the facts and circumstances of any particular case determine what is good or bad".[ The later Hindu texts include fourfold sources of ''Dharma'', states Levinson, which include ''Atmanastushti'' (satisfaction of one's conscience), ''Sadacara'' (local norms of virtuous individuals), ''Smriti'' and ''Sruti''.][David Levinson (2002), Encyclopedia of Crime and Punishment, Volume 1, SAGE Publications, , page 829]
Bhasya on Dharma-smriti
Medhatithi's philosophical analysis of and commentary on criminal, civil and family law in Dharmasastras, particularly of Manusmriti, using Nyaya and Mimamsa theories, is the oldest and the most widely studied tertiary ''Smriti''.Medhatithi - History of Dharmasastra
PV Kane;
Also see: G JHA (1920), Manu Smrti with Bhasya of Medhatithi, 5 vols, University of Calcutta Press
See also
*Smarta
The ''Smarta'' tradition ( sa, स्मार्त), also called Smartism, is a movement in Hinduism that developed and expanded with the Puranas genre of literature. It reflects a synthesis of four philosophical strands, namely Mimamsa, A ...
*Śruti
''Shruti'' ( sa, श्रुति, , ) in Sanskrit means "that which is heard" and refers to the body of most authoritative, ancient religious texts comprising the central canon of Hinduism. Manusmriti states: ''Śrutistu vedo vijñeyaḥ'' ( ...
*Sastra
''Shastra'' (, IAST: , ) is a Sanskrit word that means "precept, rules, manual, compendium, book or treatise" in a general sense.Monier Williams, Monier Williams' Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, Article on 'zAstra'' The wo ...
*Sūtra
''Sutra'' ( sa, सूत्र, translit=sūtra, translit-std=IAST, translation=string, thread)Monier Williams, ''Sanskrit English Dictionary'', Oxford University Press, Entry fo''sutra'' page 1241 in Indian literary traditions refers to an aph ...
* Yuga Dharma
*Śāstra pramāṇam in Hinduism
In Hinduism, refers to Pramana#Śabda, the authority of the scriptures (''śruti'', Vedas) with regard to ''puruṣārtha'', the objects of human pursuit, namely ''Dharma (Hinduism), dharma'' (right conduct), ''artha'' (means of life), ''kāma'' ...
References
Sources
#Brick, David. “Transforming Tradition into Texts: The Early Development of Smrti.” ‘‘Journal of Indian Philosophy’’ 34.3 (2006): 287–302.
#Davis, Jr. Donald R. Forthcoming. ''The Spirit of Hindu Law''.
#
#Lingat, Robert. 1973. ''The Classical Law of India''. Trans. J. Duncan M. Derrett. Berkeley: University of California Press.
#Rocher, Ludo. “Hindu Conceptions of Law.” ‘‘Hastings Law Journal’’ 29.6 (1978): 1284–1305.
#
Notes
External links
Arsha Vidya Gurukulam
Sanskrit site with comprehensive library of texts
Smriti on Hindupedia, the Hindu Encyclopedia
{{Hindudharma
Hindu texts
Customary legal systems
Sanskrit words and phrases