Silbannacus was an obscure
Roman emperor or
usurper
A usurper is an illegitimate or controversial claimant to power, often but not always in a monarchy. In other words, one who takes the power of a country, city, or established region for oneself, without any formal or legal right to claim it as ...
during the
Crisis of the Third Century
The Crisis of the Third Century, also known as the Military Anarchy or the Imperial Crisis (AD 235–284), was a period in which the Roman Empire nearly collapsed. The crisis ended due to the military victories of Aurelian and with the ascensi ...
. Silbannacus is not mentioned in any contemporary documents and his existence was forgotten until the 20th century, when two coins bearing his name were discovered, the first in the 1930s and the second in the 1980s. His unusual name suggests that he might have been of
Gallic descent.
As the only known evidence for his existence is the two coins, the exact time and extent of Silbannacus's rule is not known. Based on the design of the coin and its silver content, Silbannacus was most likely concurrent with the reigns of
Philip the Arab
Philip the Arab ( la, Marcus Julius Philippus "Arabs"; 204 – September 249) was Roman emperor from 244 to 249. He was born in Aurantis, Arabia, in a city situated in modern-day Syria. After the death of Gordian III in February 244, Philip ...
(244–249),
Decius
Gaius Messius Quintus Traianus Decius ( 201 ADJune 251 AD), sometimes translated as Trajan Decius or Decius, was the emperor of the Roman Empire from 249 to 251.
A distinguished politician during the reign of Philip the Arab, Decius was procla ...
(249–251),
Trebonianus Gallus
Gaius Vibius Trebonianus Gallus (206 – August 253) was Roman emperor from June 251 to August 253, in a joint rule with his son Volusianus.
Early life
Gallus was born in Italy, in a family with respected Etruscan senatorial background. He had ...
(251–253),
Aemilian
Marcus Aemilius Aemilianus ( – September 253), also known as Aemilian, was Roman emperor for three months in 253.
Commander of the Moesian troops, he obtained an important victory against the invading Goths and was, for this reason, acclaim ...
(253), or
Valerian (253–260). The two most prevalent ideas are the older hypothesis, that Silbannacus was a usurper in
Gaul
Gaul ( la, Gallia) was a region of Western Europe first described by the Romans. It was inhabited by Celtic and Aquitani tribes, encompassing present-day France, Belgium, Luxembourg, most of Switzerland, parts of Northern Italy (only during ...
during the reign of Philip the Arab, at some point between 248 and 250, and the newer hypothesis, based on the design of the second coin, that Silbannacus was a briefly reigning legitimate emperor, holding
Rome
, established_title = Founded
, established_date = 753 BC
, founder = King Romulus (legendary)
, image_map = Map of comune of Rome (metropolitan city of Capital Rome, region Lazio, Italy).svg
, map_caption ...
between the death of
Aemilian
Marcus Aemilius Aemilianus ( – September 253), also known as Aemilian, was Roman emperor for three months in 253.
Commander of the Moesian troops, he obtained an important victory against the invading Goths and was, for this reason, acclaim ...
and the arrival of
Valerian.
Name
The coins of Silbannacus give him the style ''Imperator Mar. Silbannacus Augustus''. Per the German historian Felix Hartmann, writing in 1982, and the English historian Maxwell Craven, writing in 2019, the unusual name Silbannacus appears to be of
Celtic
Celtic, Celtics or Keltic may refer to:
Language and ethnicity
*pertaining to Celts, a collection of Indo-European peoples in Europe and Anatolia
**Celts (modern)
*Celtic languages
**Proto-Celtic language
* Celtic music
*Celtic nations
Sports Fo ...
origin, due to the suffix "-acus", suggesting that Silbannacus might have been of
Gallic, or perhaps even
British
British may refer to:
Peoples, culture, and language
* British people, nationals or natives of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories, and Crown Dependencies.
** Britishness, the British identity and common culture
* British English, ...
, descent. Another possibility is that Silbannacus is a misspelling of Silvannacus or Silvaniacus, names derived from the Roman forest god
Silvanus. Silvanus might have been based on the Etruscan god
Selvans
In Etruscan mythology and religion, Selvans is god of the woodlands and boundaries, including sacred boundaries. He is possibly cognate with Roman Silvanus. As the god of boundaries, he is known by the epithet ''tularias'' as stated by a dedica ...
, which could suggest Silbannacus as originating from central Italy (the homeland of the Etruscans). Otherwise, northern Italy had Celto-Gallic influences, an alternate explanation of the suffix "-acus", which suggest a northern Italian origin. The name being misspelled is possible, as there exist known examples of misspellings on coins of other emperors: some of the coins of
Licinius
Valerius Licinianus Licinius (c. 265 – 325) was Roman emperor from 308 to 324. For most of his reign he was the colleague and rival of Constantine I, with whom he co-authored the Edict of Milan, AD 313, that granted official toleration to C ...
(308–324) refer to him as "Licinnius" and some of the coins of
Vetranio
Vetranio (died c. 356) was a Roman soldier, statesman and co-Emperor, a native of the province of Moesia (in modern Serbia).
Life and career Early life
Vetranio was born in the Roman province of Moesia to low-born parents, sometime in the ...
(350) refer to him as "Vertanio".
As there were several common Roman names that began with Mar., the correct reading of his ''
nomen'' is not certain. Though some modern reference works refer to him as "Marcus Silbannacus", Marcus was typically a ''
praenomen
The ''praenomen'' (; plural: ''praenomina'') was a personal name chosen by the parents of a Roman child. It was first bestowed on the ''dies lustricus'' (day of lustration), the eighth day after the birth of a girl, or the ninth day after the bi ...
'', unlikely to be featured on coins in this period. More likely readings, according to Craven "the only likely alternatives", are either Marcius or Marius. Additionally, the German historian Christian Körner suggested the name Marinus as a third possibility in 2002. If his ''nomen'' was Marcius, Craven considers it possible that he could have been related to
Marcia Otacilia Severa
Marcia Otacilia Severa was the Empress of Rome and wife of Emperor Philip the Arab, who reigned over the Roman Empire from 244 to 249.
Biography Early life
She was a member of the ancient gens Otacilia, of consular and senatorial rank. Her ...
, the wife and empress of Emperor
Philip the Arab
Philip the Arab ( la, Marcus Julius Philippus "Arabs"; 204 – September 249) was Roman emperor from 244 to 249. He was born in Aurantis, Arabia, in a city situated in modern-day Syria. After the death of Gordian III in February 244, Philip ...
(244–249).
Interpretations and speculation
Both coins of Silbannacus were found in what was once
Gaul
Gaul ( la, Gallia) was a region of Western Europe first described by the Romans. It was inhabited by Celtic and Aquitani tribes, encompassing present-day France, Belgium, Luxembourg, most of Switzerland, parts of Northern Italy (only during ...
; the first coin was discovered in the 1930s, reputedly in Lorraine and the second coin was found in the 1980s somewhere near Paris. The Lorraine coin was acquired by the
British Museum
The British Museum is a public museum dedicated to human history, art and culture located in the Bloomsbury area of London. Its permanent collection of eight million works is among the largest and most comprehensive in existence. It docum ...
in 1937 from a Swiss coin dealer. The unique coin baffled the researchers and raised many questions. Romans minted coins in large numbers, meaning that there only being a single known example made its authenticity, and the existence of Silbannacus, uncertain. The British Museum did not doubt the coin as being genuine, as it resembled other coins of the third century in design and composition, but there were questions as to whether Silbannacus was a real figure. Further evidence taken to confidently establish the coin as genuine was the fact that the portrait of Silbannacus did not completely match that of any other emperor, that there was no evidence of retouching on the letters, and that the image on the reverse of the coin was otherwise more or less unknown. The design and the silver content of the coin confidently places it in the middle of the third century, minted at some point between AD 238 and 260. This makes Silbannacus an emperor or usurper during the turbulent
Crisis of the Third Century
The Crisis of the Third Century, also known as the Military Anarchy or the Imperial Crisis (AD 235–284), was a period in which the Roman Empire nearly collapsed. The crisis ended due to the military victories of Aurelian and with the ascensi ...
when the Roman Empire was plagued by both internal instability and external threats.
The second coin was held in a private collection for many years after its discovery and its existence was not widely known until it was published by the French historian Sylviane Estiot in 1996. It was only with Estiot's paper that Silbannacus became widely accepted as a real historical figure, his existence now supported by two coins, rather than a single one. Though the coins share the same inscription on the obverse side, they differ on the reverse side. The first coin contains the inscription VICTORIA AVG. and the second coin contains MARTI PROPVGT ("To Mars the defender"). As the only evidence for his existence is two coins, the reign or usurpation of Silbannacus might have been very brief, perhaps lasting just a few weeks, or perhaps just a few days. Considering the period and his obscurity, it is likely that his reign, or usurpation, ended in Silbannacus' death.
Based on the depiction on his coins, Silbannacus was relatively young, had a small head and slightly elongated face, with a slightly
aquiline nose
An aquiline nose (also called a Roman nose) is a human nose with a prominent bridge, giving it the appearance of being curved or slightly bent. The word ''aquiline'' comes from the Latin word ''aquilinus'' ("eagle-like"), an allusion to the curved ...
. In contrast to the many fully-bearded contemporary emperors, Silbannacus apparently did not have a full beard, but
whiskers
Vibrissae (; singular: vibrissa; ), more generally called Whiskers, are a type of stiff, functional hair used by mammals to touch, sense their environment. These hairs are finely specialised for this purpose, whereas other types of hair are c ...
descending alongside the jawbone, and a beardless chin.
As usurper in Gaul
![Sibannacus full](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Sibannacus_full.jpg)
It is not clear from the coins alone when Silbannacus would have been active. In 1940, the British
numismatist
A numismatist is a specialist in numismatics ("of coins"; from Late Latin ''numismatis'', genitive of ''numisma''). Numismatists include collectors, specialist dealers, and scholars who use coins and other currency in object-based research. Altho ...
Harold Mattingly
Harold Mattingly (24 December 1884 – 26 January 1964) was a British classical scholar, specialising in art history and numismatics. His interests included the history of Ancient Rome, Etruscan coins, Etruscan and Roman currency, and the Roman ...
dated the 1937 coin, based on its style, to 249/250. Most later authors have agreed with this approximate mid-3rd century date, and he is most often placed as a usurper in the turbulent reign of Philip the Arab. Craven suggests 248 as the most likely year, placing a revolt by Silbannacus shortly prior to the uprisings of the subsequent usurpers
Sponsian,
Pacatian
Pacatian (; la, Tiberius Claudius Marinus Pacatianus; died ''c.'' 248) was a usurper in the Danube area of the Roman Empire during the time of Philip the Arab.
He is known from coins, and from mentions in Zosimus and Zonaras, who say that h ...
and
Jotapian
Jotapian (; la, Marcus F. Ru. Jotapianus; died ''c.'' 249) was a usurper in the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire during the reign of Emperor Philip the Arab, around 249. Jotapian is known from his rare coins and from accounts in Aurelius V ...
. Though it is the most common suggestion, the coin being from the time of Philip is an educated guess, and far from certain. Some historians place Silbannacus in the reign of Philip's successor
Decius
Gaius Messius Quintus Traianus Decius ( 201 ADJune 251 AD), sometimes translated as Trajan Decius or Decius, was the emperor of the Roman Empire from 249 to 251.
A distinguished politician during the reign of Philip the Arab, Decius was procla ...
(249–251) instead, and others place him as directly preceding
Postumus
Marcus Cassianius Latinius Postumus was a Roman commander of Batavian origin, who ruled as Emperor of the splinter state of the Roman Empire known to modern historians as the Gallic Empire. The Roman army in Gaul threw off its allegiance to G ...
(260–269), who founded the breakaway
Gallic Empire
The Gallic Empire or the Gallic Roman Empire are names used in modern historiography for a breakaway part of the Roman Empire that functioned ''de facto'' as a separate state from 260 to 274. It originated during the Crisis of the Third Century, w ...
, an idea first proposed by the French historian J. M. Doyen in 1989.
In addition to the location of discovery of the coins, another point that might also connect Silbannacus to Gaul is the reverse side of the 1937 coin depicting
Mercury
Mercury commonly refers to:
* Mercury (planet), the nearest planet to the Sun
* Mercury (element), a metallic chemical element with the symbol Hg
* Mercury (mythology), a Roman god
Mercury or The Mercury may also refer to:
Companies
* Merc ...
holding a
Victoria
Victoria most commonly refers to:
* Victoria (Australia), a state of the Commonwealth of Australia
* Victoria, British Columbia, provincial capital of British Columbia, Canada
* Victoria (mythology), Roman goddess of Victory
* Victoria, Seychelle ...
; Mercury being a pre-eminent god in Gaul who would later be used on the coins of Postumus. The inclusion of Mercury is one of the features that makes dating the coin precisely difficult, the deity only being found infrequently on coins before the late third century.
In a 1982 study on usurpers in the third century, Hartmann offered a speculative reconstruction of a revolt by Silbannacus, writing that he might have revolted against Philip in Germania Superior, near the Rhine frontier. Hartmann speculates that Silbannacus might have commanded Germanic auxiliaries in the Roman army. The speculative revolt may have lasted until the beginning of Decius, who is mentioned by the 4th-century historian
Eutropius as suppressing an uprising in Gaul. It is possible that Eutropius actually refers to an uprising in
Galatia
Galatia (; grc, Γαλατία, ''Galatía'', "Gaul") was an ancient area in the highlands of central Anatolia, roughly corresponding to the provinces of Ankara and Eskişehir, in modern Turkey. Galatia was named after the Gauls from Thrace (c ...
(in
Anatolia
Anatolia, tr, Anadolu Yarımadası), and the Anatolian plateau, also known as Asia Minor, is a large peninsula in Western Asia and the westernmost protrusion of the Asian continent. It constitutes the major part of modern-day Turkey. The re ...
), and that reading it as "Gaul" is an error.
In 2019, Craven offered a speculative reconstruction similar to that of Hartmann, writing that Silbannacus might have begun as governor of either
Germania Superior
Germania Superior ("Upper Germania") was an imperial province of the Roman Empire. It comprised an area of today's western Switzerland, the French Jura and Alsace regions, and southwestern Germany. Important cities were Besançon ('' Vesontio' ...
or
Germania Inferior
Germania Inferior ("Lower Germania") was a Roman province from AD 85 until the province was renamed Germania Secunda in the fourth century, on the west bank of the Rhine bordering the North Sea. The capital of the province was Colonia Agrippin ...
, elevated by his troops to emperor after dealing with some forgotten crisis on the Rhine frontier. As the 1937 coin depicts Victoria, and the 1996 coin depicts Mars, deities associated with success in battle, Craven speculated that Silbannacus might have inflicted some surprise defeat on a Germanic invasion. These reconstructions are highly speculative: there are no known records of Germanic tribes threatening the Rhine frontier during the reign of Philip, and the ideas that Silbannacus was a commander or governor are as of yet baseless.
As emperor in Rome
![Silbannacus2](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Silbannacus2.jpg)
The style of the second coin of Silbannacus appears to copy the design used on the coins of the emperor
Aemilian
Marcus Aemilius Aemilianus ( – September 253), also known as Aemilian, was Roman emperor for three months in 253.
Commander of the Moesian troops, he obtained an important victory against the invading Goths and was, for this reason, acclaim ...
(253), which suggests that Silbannacus ruled later than the time of Philip, possibly around the time of Aemilian's short reign. In particular, both the bust of Silbannacus on the coin, as well as the legend MARTI PROPVGT appears very similar to Aemilian's coins. The similarity might suggest that the coins were made in the same mint, which would mean that Silbannacus held brief control of the mint in the imperial capital.
253 was a turbulent year and many of the events that took place are obscure due to a lack of surviving sources. Aemilian's predecessor was
Trebonianus Gallus
Gaius Vibius Trebonianus Gallus (206 – August 253) was Roman emperor from June 251 to August 253, in a joint rule with his son Volusianus.
Early life
Gallus was born in Italy, in a family with respected Etruscan senatorial background. He had ...
(251–253) and Aemilian had been proclaimed emperor by his troops after winning a victory against the
Goths
The Goths ( got, 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌸𐌹𐌿𐌳𐌰, translit=''Gutþiuda''; la, Gothi, grc-gre, Γότθοι, Gótthoi) were a Germanic people who played a major role in the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the emergence of medieval Europe ...
by the
Danube
The Danube ( ; ) is a river that was once a long-standing frontier of the Roman Empire and today connects 10 European countries, running through their territories or being a border. Originating in Germany, the Danube flows southeast for , pa ...
. Gallus ordered the general
Valerian to defeat the usurper, but Aemilian quickly reached Italy and overthrew Gallus. Aemilian's reign would be cut short when Valerian rebelled against him within weeks. Aemilian departed Rome to battle Valerian but was assassinated by his soldiers before a battle could take place. As features of the second coin are similar to features of coins minted at Rome, it is possible that Silbannacus was not an usurper in Gaul, but a briefly reigning ruler of the Roman capital.
Per the British historian Kevin Butcher, one possibility is that Silbannacus was an officer of Aemilian, who in the aftermath of Aemilian's death secured Rome and tried to rally against Valerian. If this is true, Silbannacus would have been unsuccessful, as Valerian took control of Rome shortly after Aemilian's death. That the coins of Silbannacus have both been found in Gaul does not discredit the idea that he ruled in Rome: currency moved around in the empire and there exists a traceable line of movement of coins from the capital to the Rhine frontier. Before the suggestion that the first coin was minted in Gaul was made, Mattingly had initially written that it was similar to the coins produced for Philip the Arab at Rome. If he ruled the capital, which would require support from the
Roman Senate
The Roman Senate ( la, Senātus Rōmānus) was a governing and advisory assembly in ancient Rome. It was one of the most enduring institutions in Roman history, being established in the first days of the city of Rome (traditionally founded in ...
, Silbannacus may be counted as a legitimate, albeit ephemeral, emperor, rather than a failed usurper. Silbannacus as a ruler in Rome is supported as the most likely option by some historians, such as Estiot, who published the second coin, and the German historian Udo Hartmann.
References
Bibliography
*
*
*
*
Web sources
*
* ''DIR'' – , Meckler, M. L.; Körner, C.
Philip the Arab and Rival Claimants of the later 240s. Retrieved 2021-04-11.
*
*
{{Roman Emperors
3rd-century deaths
3rd-century Roman usurpers
Year of birth unknown
Year of death unknown
Romans from unknown gentes
Crisis of the Third Century