Shīʿa Islam or Shīʿīsm is the second-largest
branch of
Islam. It holds that the
Islamic prophet Muhammad designated
ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as his
successor
Successor may refer to:
* An entity that comes after another (see Succession (disambiguation))
Film and TV
* ''The Successor'' (film), a 1996 film including Laura Girling
* ''The Successor'' (TV program), a 2007 Israeli television program Musi ...
(''khalīfa'') and the
Imam (spiritual and political leader) after him,
most notably at the
event of Ghadir Khumm,
but was prevented from succeeding Muhammad as the leader of the
Muslims as a result of the choice made by some of
Muhammad's other companions (''ṣaḥāba'') at
Saqifah. This view primarily contrasts with that of
Sunnī Islam, whose adherents believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor before
his death and consider
Abū Bakr, who was appointed
caliph by a group of senior Muslims at Saqifah, to be the first
rightful (''rāshidūn'') caliph after Muhammad. Adherents of Shīʿa Islam are called Shīʿa Muslims, Shīʿītes, or simply Shīʿa or Shia.
Shīʿa Islam is based on a
''ḥadīth'' report concerning Muhammad's pronouncement at Ghadir Khumm.
[Esposito, John. "What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam". Oxford University Press, 2002 , . p. 40] Shīʿa Muslims believe that
ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, should have been the designated successor to Muhammad as Islam's spiritual and political leader.
This belief later developed into the concept of
Imamah
{{expand Arabic, date=April 2021
The term imamate or ''imamah'' ( ar, إمامة, ''imāmah'') means "leadership" and refers to the office of an ''imam'' or a state ruled by an ''imam''.
Theology
*Imamate, in Sunni doctrine the caliphate
:* Naqshb ...
, the idea that certain descendants of Muhammad, the ''
Ahl al-Bayt'', are rightful rulers or Imams, whom Shīʿa Muslims believe possess special spiritual and political authority over the
Muslim community
' (; ar, أمة ) is an Arabic word meaning "community". It is distinguished from ' ( ), which means a nation with common ancestry or geography. Thus, it can be said to be a supra-national community with a common history.
It is a synonym for ' ...
.
Although there are many
Shīʿa subsects, modern Shīʿa Islam has been divided into two main groupings:
Twelvers
Twelver Shīʿīsm ( ar, ٱثْنَا عَشَرِيَّة; '), also known as Imāmīyyah ( ar, إِمَامِيَّة), is the largest branch of Shīʿa Islam, comprising about 85 percent of all Shīʿa Muslims. The term ''Twelver'' refers t ...
and
Ismāʿīlīs, with Twelver Shīʿas being the largest and most influential group among Shīʿa Muslims.
Shīʿa Islam is the
second largest branch of Islam, followed by 10–15% of all Muslims.
Twelver Shīʿīsm is the largest branch of Shīʿa Islam,
comprising about 85% of all Shīʿa Muslims.
Terminology
Collectively, adherents of Shīʿa Islam are called the ''Shīʿah'' ( ar, شِيعَة; ), which is short for ''Shīʿatu ʿAlī'' ( ar, شِيعَة عَلِيّ; ) meaning "followers of Ali", "faction of Ali", or "partisans of Ali";
[The New Encyclopædia Britannica, Jacob E. Safra, Chairman of the Board, 15th Edition, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 1998, , Vol 10, p. 738] ''Shīʿī'' () denotes both the singular noun and the adjective form, while ''Shīyāʿ'' () refers to the plural noun.
''Shīʿa'' or ''Shia'' and ''Shīʿīsm''/''Shīʿīte'' or ''Shiism''/''Shiite'' are the forms used in
English and other
European languages
Most languages of Europe belong to the Indo-European language family. Out of a total European population of 744 million as of 2018, some 94% are native speakers of an Indo-European language. Within Indo-European, the three largest phyla are Ro ...
for adherents, mosques, traditions, and things associated with the Shīʿa branch of Islam.
The term was first used during Muhammad's lifetime. At present, the word refers to the Muslims who believe that the leadership of the
Muslim community
' (; ar, أمة ) is an Arabic word meaning "community". It is distinguished from ' ( ), which means a nation with common ancestry or geography. Thus, it can be said to be a supra-national community with a common history.
It is a synonym for ' ...
after Muhammad belongs to
ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, and his successors.
Nawbakhti states that the term ''Shīʿa'' refers to a group of Muslims who at the time of Muhammad and after him regarded ʿAlī as the
Imam and
caliph.
Al-Shahrastani
Tāj al-Dīn Abū al-Fath Muhammad ibn `Abd al-Karīm ash-Shahrastānī ( ar, تاج الدين أبو الفتح محمد بن عبد الكريم الشهرستاني; 1086–1153 CE), also known as Muhammad al-Shahrastānī, was an influenti ...
expresses that the term ''Shīʿa'' refers to those who believe that ʿAlī is designated as the
heir, Imam, and caliph by Muhammad
and that ʿAlī's authority is maintained through his descendants.
For the adherents of Shīʿa Islam, this conviction is implicit in the
Quran
The Quran (, ; Standard Arabic: , Quranic Arabic: , , 'the recitation'), also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation from God. It is organized in 114 chapters (pl.: , s ...
and the
history of Islam. Shīʿa Muslim scholars emphasize that the notion of authority is linked to the family of the
Abrahamic prophets as the Quranic verses and show: ''"Indeed, God chose Adam and Noah and the family of Abraham and the family of 'Imran over the worlds – (33) Descendants, some of them from others. And God is Hearing and Knowing. (34)"''
Beliefs and practices
Theology
Shīʿa Islam is the
second largest branch of Islam, followed by 10–15% of all Muslims,
considered to be vast and
inclusive of many different denominations and subgroups.
Shīʿa Islam embodies a completely independent system of religious interpretation and political authority in the
Muslim world. The original Shīʿa identity referred to the followers of Imam ʿAlī, and Shīʿa theology was formulated after the ''
hijra
Hijra, Hijrah, Hegira, Hejira, Hijrat or Hijri may refer to:
Islam
* Hijrah (often written as ''Hejira'' in older texts), the migration of Muhammad from Mecca to Medina in 622 CE
* Migration to Abyssinia or First Hegira, of Muhammad's followers ...
'' (8th century CE). The first Shīʿa governments and societies were established by the end of the 9th century CE. The 10th century CE has been referred to by the scholar of Islamic studies
Louis Massignon
Louis Massignon (25 July 1883 – 31 October 1962) was a Catholic scholar of Islam and a pioneer of Catholic-Muslim mutual understanding. He was an influential figure in the twentieth century with regard to the Catholic church's relationship w ...
as "the Shiite Ismaili century in the history of Islam".
Profession of faith (''Shahada'')
![Kalema-tut-shahadat](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Kalema-tut-shahadat.jpg)
The Shīʿa version of the ''
Shahada
The ''Shahada'' ( Arabic: ٱلشَّهَادَةُ , "the testimony"), also transliterated as ''Shahadah'', is an Islamic oath and creed, and one of the Five Pillars of Islam and part of the Adhan. It reads: "I bear witness that there i ...
'', the Islamic profession of faith, differs from that of the
Sunnīs.
The Sunnī version of the ''Shahada'' states "There is no god except God, Muhammad is the messenger of God", but to this declaration of faith Shīʿa Muslims append the phrase ''Ali-un-Waliullah'' (: "ʿAlī is the ''
Wali
A wali (''wali'' ar, وَلِيّ, '; plural , '), the Arabic word which has been variously translated "master", "authority", "custodian", "protector", is most commonly used by Muslims to indicate an Islamic saint, otherwise referred to by the ...
'' (custodian) of
God
In monotheistic thought, God is usually viewed as the supreme being, creator, and principal object of faith. Swinburne, R.G. "God" in Honderich, Ted. (ed)''The Oxford Companion to Philosophy'', Oxford University Press, 1995. God is typically ...
"). The basis for the Shīʿa belief in ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as the ''Wali'' of God is derived from the Quranic verse , the "
Verse of Wilayah".
This additional phrase to the declaration of faith embodies the Shīʿa emphasis on the inheritance of authority through
Muhammad's family and lineage. The three clauses of the Shīʿa version of the ''Shahada'' thus address the fundamental Islamic beliefs of ''
Tawḥīd'' (unity and oneness of God), ''
Nubuwwah'' (the
prophethood of Muhammad), and ''
Imamah
{{expand Arabic, date=April 2021
The term imamate or ''imamah'' ( ar, إمامة, ''imāmah'') means "leadership" and refers to the office of an ''imam'' or a state ruled by an ''imam''.
Theology
*Imamate, in Sunni doctrine the caliphate
:* Naqshb ...
'' (the Imamate, leadership of the faith).
Infallibility (''Ismah'')
![Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib (A](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Imam_Ali_ibn_Abi_Talib_%28A.S.%29.png)
''Ismah'' is the concept of
infallibility or "divinely bestowed freedom from error and sin" in Islam.
Muslims believe that Muhammad, along with
other prophets and messengers in Islam, possessed ''ismah''.
Twelver and
Ismāʿīlī
Isma'ilism ( ar, الإسماعيلية, al-ʾIsmāʿīlīyah) is a branch or sub-sect of Shia Islam. The Isma'ili () get their name from their acceptance of Imam Isma'il ibn Jafar as the appointed spiritual successor (imām) to Ja'far al-S ...
Shīʿa Muslims also attribute the quality to
Imams
Imam (; ar, إمام '; plural: ') is an Islamic leadership position. For Sunni Muslims, Imam is most commonly used as the title of a worship leader of a mosque. In this context, imams may lead Islamic worship services, lead prayers, serve ...
as well as to
Fāṭimah, daughter of Muhammad, in contrast to the
Zaydī Shīʿas, who don't attribute ''ismah'' to the Imams. Though initially beginning as a political movement, infallibility and sinlessness of the Imams later evolved as a distinct belief of (non-Zaydī) Shīʿīsm.
According to
Shīʿa Muslim theologians, infallibility is considered a rational, necessary precondition for spiritual and religious guidance. They argue that since
God
In monotheistic thought, God is usually viewed as the supreme being, creator, and principal object of faith. Swinburne, R.G. "God" in Honderich, Ted. (ed)''The Oxford Companion to Philosophy'', Oxford University Press, 1995. God is typically ...
has commanded absolute obedience from these figures, they must only order that which is right. The state of infallibility is based on the Shīʿa interpretation of the
Verse of Purification
The Verse of Purification (Arabic:آية التطهير) refers to verse 33:33 of the Quran about the status of purity of the Ahl al-Bayt (). The last passage of this verse reads:
Muslims disagree as to who belongs to the Ahl al-Bayt and what ...
. Thus, they are the most pure ones, the only immaculate ones preserved from, and immune to, all uncleanness. It doesn't mean that supernatural powers prevent them from committing a
sin
In a religious context, sin is a transgression against divine law. Each culture has its own interpretation of what it means to commit a sin. While sins are generally considered actions, any thought, word, or act considered immoral, selfish, s ...
, but due to the fact that they have absolute belief in God, they refrain from doing anything that is a sin.
They also have a complete knowledge of God's will. They are in possession of all knowledge brought by the
angels
In various theistic religious traditions an angel is a supernatural spiritual being who serves God.
Abrahamic religions often depict angels as benevolent celestial intermediaries between God (or Heaven) and humanity. Other roles incl ...
to the prophets (''nabī'') and the messengers (''rāsūl''). Their knowledge encompasses the totality of all times. Thus, they are believed to act without fault in religious matters. Shīʿa Muslims regard
ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as the
successor of Muhammad not only ruling over the entire
Muslim community
' (; ar, أمة ) is an Arabic word meaning "community". It is distinguished from ' ( ), which means a nation with common ancestry or geography. Thus, it can be said to be a supra-national community with a common history.
It is a synonym for ' ...
in justice, but also interpreting the Islamic faith, practices, and its esoteric meaning. Hence he was regarded as being free from error and sin (infallible), and appointed by God by divine decree (''
nass'') to be the first Imam. ʿAlī is regarded as a "perfect man" (''al-insan al-kamil'') similar to Muhammad, according to the Shīʿa viewpoint.
Occultation (''Ghaybah'')
The
Occultation is an
eschatological belief held in various denominations of Shīʿa Islam concerning a
messianic figure, the hidden and last Imam known as "the
Mahdi", that one day shall return on Earth and fill the world with justice. According to the doctrine of
Twelver Shīʿīsm, the main goal of Imam Mahdi will be to establish an
Islamic state and to apply
Islamic laws that were revealed to Muhammad. The Quran doesn't contain verses on the Imamate, which is the basic doctrine of Shīʿa Islam. Some Shīʿa subsects, such as the
Zaydī Shīʿas and
Nizārī Ismāʿīlīs, don't believe in the idea of the Occultation. The groups which do believe in it differ as to which lineage of the Imamate is valid, and therefore which individual has gone into Occultation. They believe there are many signs that will indicate the time of his return.
Twelver Shīʿa Muslims believe that the prophesied Mahdi and
twelfth Imam,
Hujjat Allah al-Mahdi, is already on Earth in Occultation, and
will return at the end of time.
Ṭayyibi Ismāʿīlīs and Fatimid/Bohra/
Dawoodi Bohra
The Dawoodi Bohras are a religious denomination within the Ismā'īlī branch of Shia Islam. Their largest numbers reside in India, Pakistan, Yemen, East Africa, and the Middle East, with a growing presence across Europe, North America, South ...
believe the same but for their 21st Ṭayyib,
At-Tayyib Abi l-Qasim
Al-Ṭayyib Abūʾl-Qāsim ibn Al-Manṣūr ( ar, ٱلطَّيِّب أَبُو ٱلْقَاسِم ابْن ٱلْمَنْصُوْر) was, according to the Tayyibi Isma'ili-Musta'li sect of Isma'ilism, the twenty-first Imam and the last Calip ...
, and also believe that a ''
Da'i al-Mutlaq'' ("Unrestricted Missionary") maintains contact with him.
Sunnī Muslims believe that the future Mahdi has not yet arrived on Earth.
''Ḥadīth'' tradition
Shīʿa Muslims believe that the status of ʿAlī is supported by numerous ''
ḥadīth'', including the
Hadith of the pond of Khumm,
Hadith of the two weighty things,
Hadith of the pen and paper,
Hadith of the invitation of the close families, and
Hadith of the Twelve Successors. In particular, the
Hadith of the Cloak
Ahl al-Kisa ( ar, أَهْل ٱلْكِسَاء, ʾAhl al-Kisāʾ, lit=people of the cloak, '), also known as the Aal al-Aba (, ), are the Islamic prophet Muhammad, his daughter Fatima, his cousin and son-in-law Ali, and his two grandsons Ha ...
is often quoted to illustrate Muhammad's feeling towards ʿAlī and his family by both Sunnī and Shīʿa scholars. Shīʿa Muslims prefer to study and read the ''ḥadīth'' attributed to the ''
Ahl al-Bayt'' and close associates, and most
have their own separate ''ḥadīth'' canon.
Holy Relics (''Tabarruk'')
It is believed that the armaments and sacred items of all of the prophets, including
Muhammad, were handed down in succession to the Imams of the ''
Ahl al-Bayt''.
Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq, the
6th Shīʿīte Imam, in ''
Kitab al-Kafi'' mentions that "with me are the arms of the Messenger of Allah. It is not disputable."
Further, he claims that with him is the sword of the Messenger of God, his coat of arms, his Lamam (pennon) and his helmet. In addition, he mentions that with him is the flag of the Messenger of God, the victorious. With him is the Staff of
Moses, the ring of
Solomon, son of
David, and the tray on which Moses used to offer his offerings. With him is the name that whenever the Messenger of God would place it between the Muslims and pagans no arrow from the pagans would reach the Muslims. With him is the similar object that angels brought.
Al-Ṣādiq also narrated that the passing down of armaments is synonymous to receiving the ''Imamat'' (leadership), similar to how the
Ark of Covenant in the house of the
Israelites signaled prophethood.
Imam
Ali al-Ridha narrates that wherever the armaments among us would go, knowledge would also follow and the armaments would never depart from those with knowledge (''Imamat'').
Other doctrines
Doctrine about necessity of acquiring knowledge
According to
Muhammad Rida al-Muzaffar, God gives humans the faculty of reason and argument. Also, God orders humans to spend time thinking carefully on creation while he refers to all creations as his signs of power and glory. These signs encompass all of the universe. Furthermore, there is a similarity between humans as the little world and the universe as the large world. God does not accept the faith of those who follow him without thinking and only with imitation, but also God blames them for such actions. In other words, humans have to think about the universe with reason and intellect, a faculty bestowed on us by God. Since there is more insistence on the faculty of intellect among Shīʿa Muslims, even evaluating the claims of someone who claims prophecy is on the basis of intellect.
Doctrine concerning prayer
Praying in Shīʿa Islam has an important place, as Muhammad described it as a weapon of the
believer. In fact, Duʼa considered as something that is a feature of Shia community in a sense. Performing Duʼa in Shīʿa Islam has a special ritual. Because of this, there are many books written on the instructions and conditions of praying among Shīʿa Muslims.
Shīʿīte clergymen always invited their followers to recite Duʼa. For instance, ʿAlī has been considered with the subject of Duʼa because of his leadership in monotheism.
Practices
![Karbala in 2019](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Karbala_in_2019.jpg)
Shīʿa religious practices, such as prayers, differ only slightly from the Sunnīs. While all
Muslims pray five times daily, Shīʿa Muslims have the option of combining ''
Dhuhr'' with ''
Asr'' and ''
Maghrib
The Maghrib Prayer ( ar, صلاة المغرب ', "sunset prayer") is one of the five mandatory salah (Islamic prayer). As an Islamic day starts at sunset, the Maghrib prayer is technically the first prayer of the day. If counted from midni ...
'' with ''
Isha'
The Isha prayer ( ar, صلاة العشاء ', "night prayer") is one of the five mandatory salah (Islamic prayer). As an Islamic day starts at sunset, the Isha prayer is technically the second prayer of the day. If counted from midnight, it is t ...
'', as there are three distinct times mentioned in the
Quran
The Quran (, ; Standard Arabic: , Quranic Arabic: , , 'the recitation'), also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation from God. It is organized in 114 chapters (pl.: , s ...
. The Sunnīs tend to combine only under certain circumstances.
Holidays
Shīʿa Muslims celebrate the following annual holidays:
*
Eid ul-Fitr, which marks the end of fasting during the month of
Ramadan
*
Eid al-Adha
Eid al-Adha () is the second and the larger of the two main holidays celebrated in Islam (the other being Eid al-Fitr). It honours the willingness of Ibrahim (Abraham) to sacrifice his son Ismail (Ishmael) as an act of obedience to Allah's com ...
, which marks the end of the ''
Hajj'' or pilgrimage to Mecca
*
Eid al-Ghadeer, which is the anniversary of the Ghadir Khum, the occasion when Muhammad announced Ali's Imamate before a multitude of Muslims. Eid al-Ghadeer is held on the 18th of Dhu al-Hijjah.
* The
Mourning of Muharram
The Mourning of Muharram (also known as Azadari, Remembrance of Muharram or Muharram Observances) is a set of commemoration rituals observed primarily by Shia people. The commemoration falls in Muharram, the first month of the Islamic calendar. ...
and the
Day of Ashura
A day is the time period of a full rotation of the Earth with respect to the Sun. On average, this is 24 hours, 1440 minutes, or 86,400 seconds. In everyday life, the word "day" often refers to a solar day, which is the length between two s ...
for Shīʿa Muslims commemorate the martyrdom of
Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī, brother of
Ḥasan and grandson of Muhammad, who was killed by Yazid ibn Muawiyah in
Karbala (central Iraq). Ashura is a day of deep mourning which occurs on the 10th of
Muharram.
*
Arba'een
, duration = 1 day
, frequency = once every Islamic year
, observedby = Shia
, date = 20 Safar
, date2018 = 30 October
, date2019 = 19 October
, date2020 = 8 October
, date2021 = 28 September
, date ...
commemorates the suffering of the women and children of Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī's household. After Ḥusayn was killed, they were marched over the desert, from Karbala (central Iraq) to Shaam (
Damascus, Syria). Many children (some of whom were direct descendants of Muhammad) died of thirst and exposure along the route. Arbaein occurs on the 20th of
Safar, 40 days after Ashura.
*
Mawlid, Muhammad's birth date. Unlike Sunnī Muslims, who celebrate the 12th of
Rabi' al-awwal as Muhammad's day of birth or death (because they assert that his birth and death both occur in this week), Shīʿa Muslims celebrate Muhammad's birthday on the 17th of the month, which coincides with the birth date of
Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq, the
6th Shīʿīte Imam.
*
Fāṭimah's birthday on 20th of
Jumada al-Thani
Jumada al-Thani ( ar, جُمَادَىٰ ٱلثَّانِي, Jumādā ath-Thānī, lit=The second Jumada) also known as Jumada al-Akhirah ( ar, جُمَادَىٰ ٱلْآخِرَة, link=no, Jumādā al-ʾĀkhirah, lit=The final Jumada), Jumad ...
. This day is also considered as the "'women and mothers' day"
*
ʿAlī's birthday on 13th of
Rajab.
*
Mid-Sha'ban
Mid-Sha'ban ( ar-at, نصف شعبان, niṣf šaʿbān or ''laylat niṣf min šaʿbān'' "night on the half of Sha'ban") is a Muslim holiday observed by Shia and Sunni Sufi Muslim communities on the eve of 15th of Sha'ban (i.e., the nigh ...
is the birth date of the 12th and final Twelver imam,
Muhammad al-Mahdi. It is celebrated by Shia Muslims on the 15th of
Sha'aban
Shaʽban ( ar, شَعْبَان, ') is the eighth month of the Islamic calendar. It is called as the month of "separation", as the word means "to disperse" or "to separate" because the pagan Arabs used to disperse in search of water.
The fiftee ...
.
*
Laylat al-Qadr
The Qadr Night or Laylat al-Qadr ( ar, لیلة القدر), variously rendered in English as the Night of Decree, Night of Power, Night of Value, Night of Destiny, or Night of Measures, is, in Islamic belief, the night when the Quran was firs ...
, anniversary of the night of the revelation of the Quran.
*
Eid al-Mubahila
The Event of Mubahala () was a meeting between the Islamic prophet Muhammad and a Christian delegation from Najran (present-day Saudi Arabia), in the month of Dhu'l-Hijja, 10 AH (October 631, October 631–32, October 632–33), where Muhamm ...
celebrates a meeting between the ''
Ahl al-Bayt'' (household of Muhammad) and a Christian deputation from Najran. Al-Mubahila is held on the 24th of Dhu al-Hijjah.
Holy sites
After the
four holy cities of Islam (
Mecca
Mecca (; officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, commonly shortened to Makkah ()) is a city and administrative center of the Mecca Province of Saudi Arabia, and the holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red Sea, in a narrow ...
,
Medina
Medina,, ', "the radiant city"; or , ', (), "the city" officially Al Madinah Al Munawwarah (, , Turkish: Medine-i Münevvere) and also commonly simplified as Madīnah or Madinah (, ), is the second-holiest city in Islam, and the capital of the ...
,
Jerusalem
Jerusalem (; he, יְרוּשָׁלַיִם ; ar, القُدس ) (combining the Biblical and common usage Arabic names); grc, Ἱερουσαλήμ/Ἰεροσόλυμα, Hierousalḗm/Hierosóluma; hy, Երուսաղեմ, Erusałēm. i ...
, and
Damascus), the cities of
Najaf
Najaf ( ar, ٱلنَّجَف) or An-Najaf al-Ashraf ( ar, ٱلنَّجَف ٱلْأَشْرَف), also known as Baniqia ( ar, بَانِيقِيَا), is a city in central Iraq about 160 km (100 mi) south of Baghdad. Its estimated popula ...
,
Karbala, and
Qom are the most revered by Shīʿa Muslims.
The
Sanctuary of Imām ʿAlī in Najaf, the
Shrine of Imam Ḥusayn in Karbala, and the
Shrine of Fāṭimah al-Maʿṣūmah in Qom are very essential for Shīʿa Muslims. Other venerated pilgrimage sites include the
Imam Reza shrine in
Mashhad, the
Kadhimiya Mosque in
Kadhimiya
Kadhimiya ( ar, ٱلْكَاظِمِيَّة, al-Kāẓimiyyah, ) or Kadhimayn (, ) is a northern neighbourhood of the city of Baghdad, Iraq. It is about from the city's center, on the west bank of the Tigris. 'Kadhimiya' is also the name of on ...
,
Al-Askari Mosque in
Samarra, the
Sahla Mosque, the
Great Mosque of Kufa
The Great Mosque of Kufa ( ar, مَسْجِد ٱلْكُوفَة ٱلْمُعَظَّم/ٱلْأَعْظَم, Masjid al-Muʿaẓẓam/al-ʾAʿaẓam), or Masjid al-Kufa, is located in Kufa, Iraq and is one of the earliest and holiest surviving ...
, the
Jamkaran Mosque in Qom, and the
Tomb of Daniel
The Tomb of Daniel ( Persian: آرامگاه دانیال نبی) is the traditional burial place of the biblical figure Daniel. Various locations have been named for the site, but the tomb in Susa, in Iran, is the most widely accepted site, it b ...
in
Susa.
Most of the
Shīʿa sacred places and heritage sites in Saudi Arabia have been destroyed by the
Al Saud-
Wahhabi
Wahhabism ( ar, ٱلْوَهَّابِيَةُ, translit=al-Wahhābiyyah) is a Sunni Islamic revivalist and fundamentalist movement associated with the reformist doctrines of the 18th-century Arabian Islamic scholar, theologian, preacher, an ...
armies of the
Ikhwan, the most notable being the tombs of the Imams located in the Al-Baqi' cemetery in 1925. In 2006, a bomb destroyed the shrine of Al-Askari Mosque. (''See'':
Anti-Shi'ism
Anti-Shi'ism is hatred of, prejudice against, discrimination against, persecution of, and violence against Shia Muslims because of their religious beliefs, traditions, and cultural heritage. The term was first used by Shia Rights Watch in 2011 ...
).
Demographics
![Madhhab Map3](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/Madhhab_Map3.png)
It is estimated that either 10–20%
or 10–13%
of the
global Muslim population are Shīʿas. They may number up to 200 million as of 2009.
As of 1985, Shīʿa Muslims are estimated to be 21% of the Muslim population in
South Asia
South Asia is the southern subregion of Asia, which is defined in both geographical
Geography (from Greek: , ''geographia''. Combination of Greek words ‘Geo’ (The Earth) and ‘Graphien’ (to describe), literally "earth descr ...
, although the total number is difficult to estimate.
Shīʿa Muslims form a majority of the population in various regions of the
Muslim world, including
Azerbaijan,
Bahrain
Bahrain ( ; ; ar, البحرين, al-Bahrayn, locally ), officially the Kingdom of Bahrain, ' is an island country in Western Asia. It is situated on the Persian Gulf, and comprises a small archipelago made up of 50 natural islands and an ...
,
Iran
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...
, and
Iraq,
as well as a plurality in
Lebanon. Shīʿa Muslims constitute 36.3% of the entire population (and 38.6% of the Muslim population) of the
Middle East.
Estimates have placed the proportion of Shīʿa Muslims in Lebanon between 27% and 45% of the population,
30%–35% of the citizen population in
Kuwait (no figures exist for the non-citizen population),
over 20% in
Turkey,
5–20% of the population in
Pakistan,
and 10–19% of
Afghanistan
Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan,; prs, امارت اسلامی افغانستان is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central Asia and South Asia. Referred to as the Heart of Asia, it is bordere ...
's population.
Saudi Arabia hosts a number of distinct Shīʿa communities, including the
Twelver Baharna
The Baharna ( ar, بحارنة) are the indigenous Shia Muslim inhabitants of Bahrain who inhabited the area before the arrival of Sunni Muslim Arab tribes from Najd, particularly by Banu Utbah in the 18th century which the Bahraini royal fami ...
in the
Eastern Province and
Nakhawila of Medina, and the
Ismāʿīlī
Isma'ilism ( ar, الإسماعيلية, al-ʾIsmāʿīlīyah) is a branch or sub-sect of Shia Islam. The Isma'ili () get their name from their acceptance of Imam Isma'il ibn Jafar as the appointed spiritual successor (imām) to Ja'far al-S ...
Sulaymani and
Zaydī Shīʿas of
Najran. Estimations put the number of Shīʿīte citizens at 2–4 million, accounting for roughly 15% of the local population. Approximately 40% of the population of Yemen are Shīʿa Muslims.
Significant Shīʿa communities also exist in the coastal regions of
West Sumatra and
Aceh in Indonesia (see
Tabuik).
The Shīʿa presence is negligible elsewhere in Southeast Asia, where Muslims are predominantly
Shāfiʿī Sunnīs.
A significant
Shīʿa minority is present in Nigeria, made up of modern-era converts to a
Shīʿīte movement centered around
Kano
Kano may refer to:
Places
*Kano State, a state in Northern Nigeria
* Kano (city), a city in Nigeria, and the capital of Kano State
**Kingdom of Kano, a Hausa kingdom between the 10th and 14th centuries
**Sultanate of Kano, a Hausa kingdom between ...
and
Sokoto
Sokoto is a major city located in extreme northwestern Nigeria, near the confluence of the Sokoto River and the Rima River. As of 2006 it has a population of over 427,760. Sokoto is the modern-day capital of Sokoto State and was previously the ...
states.
Several African countries like
Kenya,
South Africa
South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa (RSA), is the Southern Africa, southernmost country in Africa. It is bounded to the south by of coastline that stretch along the Atlantic Ocean, South Atlantic and Indian Oceans; to the ...
,
Somalia, etc. hold small minority populations of various Shīʿa subsects, primarily descendants of immigrants from South Asia during the colonial period, such as the
Khoja
The Khojas ( sd}; gu, ખોજા, hi, ख़ोजा) are a mainly Nizari Isma'ili Shia community of people originating in Gujarat, India.
Derived from the Persian Khwaja, a term of honor, the word Khoja is used to refer to Lohana Rajp ...
.
Significant populations worldwide
Figures indicated in the first three columns below are based on the October 2009 demographic study by the
Pew Research Center report, ''Mapping the Global Muslim Population''.
Major denominations or branches
The Shīʿa community throughout its history split over the issue of the Imamate. The largest branch are the
Twelvers
Twelver Shīʿīsm ( ar, ٱثْنَا عَشَرِيَّة; '), also known as Imāmīyyah ( ar, إِمَامِيَّة), is the largest branch of Shīʿa Islam, comprising about 85 percent of all Shīʿa Muslims. The term ''Twelver'' refers t ...
, followed by the
Zaydīs and the
Ismāʿīlīs. Each subsect of Shīʿīsm follows its own line of Imamate. All mainstream Twelver and Ismāʿīlī Shīʿa Muslims follow the same school of thought, the
Jaʽfari jurisprudence
Jaʿfarī jurisprudence ( ar, الفقه الجعفري; also called Jafarite in English), Jaʿfarī school or Jaʿfarī fiqh, is the school of jurisprudence (''fiqh'') in Twelver and Ismaili (including Nizari) Shia Islam, named after the sixth ...
, named after
Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq, the
6th Shīʿīte Imam.
Shīʿīte clergymen and
jurists
A jurist is a person with expert knowledge of law; someone who analyses and comments on law. This person is usually a specialist legal scholar, mostly (but not always) with a formal qualification in law and often a legal practitioner. In the U ...
usually carry the title of ''
mujtahid'' (i.e., someone authorized to issue legal opinions in Shīʿa Islam).
Twelver
Twelver Shīʿīsm or Ithnāʿashariyyah is the largest branch of Shīʿa Islam, and the terms ''Shīʿa Muslim'' and ''Shīʿa'' often refer to the Twelvers by default. The designation ''Twelver'' is derived from the doctrine of believing in twelve divinely ordained leaders, known as "
the Twelve Imams
The Twelve Imams ( ar, ٱلْأَئِمَّة ٱلْٱثْنَا عَشَر, '; fa, دوازده امام, ') are the spiritual and political successors to the Islamic prophet Muhammad in the Twelver branch of Islam, including that of the Alawi ...
". Twelver Shīʿas are otherwise known as ''Imami'' or ''Jaʿfari''; the latter term derives from
Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq, the
6th Shīʿīte Imam, who elaborated the Twelver jurisprudence. Twelver Shīʿas constitute the majority of the population in
Iran
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...
(90%),
Azerbaijan (85%),
Bahrain
Bahrain ( ; ; ar, البحرين, al-Bahrayn, locally ), officially the Kingdom of Bahrain, ' is an island country in Western Asia. It is situated on the Persian Gulf, and comprises a small archipelago made up of 50 natural islands and an ...
(70%),
Iraq (65%), and
Lebanon (65% of Muslims).
[Esposito, John. "What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam" Oxford University Press, 2002. . p. 45]
Doctrine
![Names of imameen](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Names_of_imameen.jpg)
Twelver doctrine is based on
five principles. These five principles known as ''Usul ad-Din'' are as follow:
#
Monotheism:
God
In monotheistic thought, God is usually viewed as the supreme being, creator, and principal object of faith. Swinburne, R.G. "God" in Honderich, Ted. (ed)''The Oxford Companion to Philosophy'', Oxford University Press, 1995. God is typically ...
is one and unique;
#
Justice: the concept of moral rightness based on ethics, fairness, and equity, along with the punishment of the breach of these ethics;
#
Prophethood
In religion, a prophet or prophetess is an individual who is regarded as being in contact with a divine being and is said to speak on behalf of that being, serving as an intermediary with humanity by delivering messages or teachings from the s ...
: the institution by which God sends emissaries, or prophets, to guide humankind;
#
Leadership: a divine institution which succeeded the institution of Prophethood. Its appointees (''Imams'') are divinely appointed;
#
Resurrection and Last Judgment: God's final assessment of humanity.
More specifically, these principles are known as ''Usul al-Madhhab'' (principles of the Shīʿa branch of Islam) according to Twelver Shīʿas, which differ from ''Daruriyat al-Din'' ("Necessities of Religion"), which are principles in order for one to be a Muslim. ''Daruriyat al-Din'' don't include leadership (''Imamah''), as it is not a requirement in order for one to be recognized as a Muslim. However, this category, according to Twelver scholars like
Ayatollah Abu al-Qasim al-Khoei, does include belief in God, prophethood, the Day of Resurrection, and other "necessities" (such as the
belief in angels). In this regard, Twelver Shīʿas draw a distinction in terms of believing in the
main principles of Islam on the one hand, and specifically Shīʿīte doctrines like the
Imamate on the other.
Books
Besides the
Quran
The Quran (, ; Standard Arabic: , Quranic Arabic: , , 'the recitation'), also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation from God. It is organized in 114 chapters (pl.: , s ...
, which is the
sacred text common to all Muslims, Twelver Shīʿas derive scriptural and authoritative guidance from
collections of sayings and traditions (
''ḥadīth'') attributed to Muhammad and the Twelve Imams. Below is a list of some of the most prominent of these books:
* ''
Nahj al-Balagha'' by
Ash-Sharif Ar-Radhi – the most famous collection of sermons, letters & narration attributed to Ali, the first Imam regarded by Shias
* ''
Kitab al-Kafi'' by
Muhammad ibn Ya'qub al-Kulayni
Abū Jaʿfar Muḥammad ibn Yaʿqūb ibn Iṣḥāq al Kulaynī ar Rāzī ( Persian: ar, أَبُو جَعْفَر مُحَمَّد ٱبْن يَعْقُوب إِسْحَاق ٱلْكُلَيْنِيّ ٱلرَّازِيّ; c. 250 AH/864 CE ...
* ''
Wasa'il al-Shiʻah'' by
al-Hurr al-Amili
The Twelve Imams
![Twelvers1 copy copy](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Twelvers1_copy_copy.png)
The ''Twelve Imams'' are the
spiritual and political successors to Muhammad for the Twelvers. According to the theology of Twelvers, the successor of Muhammad is an
infallible human individual who not only rules over the
Muslim community
' (; ar, أمة ) is an Arabic word meaning "community". It is distinguished from ' ( ), which means a nation with common ancestry or geography. Thus, it can be said to be a supra-national community with a common history.
It is a synonym for ' ...
with justice but also is able to keep and interpret the
divine law
Divine law is any body of law that is perceived as deriving from a transcendent source, such as the will of God or godsin contrast to man-made law or to secular law. According to Angelos Chaniotis and Rudolph F. Peters, divine laws are typicall ...
(''sharīʿa'') and its esoteric meaning. The words and deeds of Muhammad and the Twelve Imams are a guide and model for the Muslim community to follow; as a result, they must be free from error and
sin
In a religious context, sin is a transgression against divine law. Each culture has its own interpretation of what it means to commit a sin. While sins are generally considered actions, any thought, word, or act considered immoral, selfish, s ...
, and Imams must be chosen by
divine decree
''Qadar'' ( ar, قدر, transliterated ''qadar'', meaning literally "power",J. M. Cowan (ed.) (1976). ''The Hans Wehr Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic''. Wiesbaden, Germany: Spoken Language Services. but translated variously as: "Fate", "Div ...
(''nass'') through Muhammad.
In Twelver Shīʿīsm, each Imam was the son of the previous Imam, with the exception of
Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī, who was the brother of
Ḥasan ibn ʿAlī. The twelfth and final Imam is
Hujjat Allah al-Mahdi, who is believed by Twelvers to be currently alive and hidden in
Occultation.
Jurisprudence
The Twelver jurisprudence is called ''
Jaʽfari jurisprudence
Jaʿfarī jurisprudence ( ar, الفقه الجعفري; also called Jafarite in English), Jaʿfarī school or Jaʿfarī fiqh, is the school of jurisprudence (''fiqh'') in Twelver and Ismaili (including Nizari) Shia Islam, named after the sixth ...
''. In this
school of Islamic jurisprudence, the ''
sunnah'' is considered to be comprehensive of the oral traditions of Muhammad and their implementation and interpretation by the Twelve Imams. There are three schools of Jaʿfari jurisprudence: Usuli, Akhbari, and
Shaykhi; the Usuli school is by far the largest of the three. Twelver groups that don't follow the Jaʿfari jurisprudence include
Alevis,
Bektashi
The Bektashi Order; sq, Tarikati Bektashi; tr, Bektaşi or Bektashism is an Islamic Sufi mystic movement originating in the 13th-century. It is named after the Anatolian saint Haji Bektash Wali (d. 1271). The community is currently led by ...
, and
Qizilbash.
The
five pillars of Islam
The Five Pillars of Islam (' ; also ' "pillars of the religion") are fundamental practices in Islam, considered to be obligatory acts of worship for all Muslims. They are summarized in the famous hadith of Gabriel. The Sunni and Shia agree o ...
to the Jaʿfari jurisprudence are known as ''Usul ad-Din'':
# ''
Tawḥīd'': unity and oneness of God;
# ''
Nubuwwah'': prophethood of Muhammad;
# ''
Muʿad'': resurrection and final judgment;
# ''
ʿAdl'': justice of God;
# ''
Imamah
{{expand Arabic, date=April 2021
The term imamate or ''imamah'' ( ar, إمامة, ''imāmah'') means "leadership" and refers to the office of an ''imam'' or a state ruled by an ''imam''.
Theology
*Imamate, in Sunni doctrine the caliphate
:* Naqshb ...
'': the rightful place of the Shīʿīte Imams.
In Jaʿfari jurisprudence, there are eight secondary pillars, known as ''Furu ad-Din'', which are as follows:
[
# '' Salat'' (prayer);
# '' Sawm'' (fasting);
# '' Hajj'' (pilgrimage) to ]Mecca
Mecca (; officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, commonly shortened to Makkah ()) is a city and administrative center of the Mecca Province of Saudi Arabia, and the holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red Sea, in a narrow ...
;
# ''Zakāt
Zakat ( ar, زكاة; , "that which purifies", also Zakat al-mal , "zakat on wealth", or Zakah) is a form of almsgiving, often collected by the Muslim Ummah. It is considered in Islam as a religious obligation, and by Quranic ranking, is ...
'' (alms giving to the poor);
# '' Jihād'' (struggle) for the righteous cause;
# Directing others towards good;
# Directing others away from evil;
# '' Khums'' (20% tax on savings yearly, after deduction of commercial expenses).
According to Twelvers, defining and interpretation of Islamic jurisprudence (''fiqh'') is the responsibility of Muhammad and the Twelve Imams. Since the 12th Imam is currently in Occultation, it is the duty of Shīʿīte clerics to refer to the Islamic literature, such as the Quran
The Quran (, ; Standard Arabic: , Quranic Arabic: , , 'the recitation'), also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation from God. It is organized in 114 chapters (pl.: , s ...
and ''ḥadīth'', and identify legal decisions within the confines of Islamic law
Sharia (; ar, شريعة, sharīʿa ) is a body of religious law that forms a part of the Islamic tradition. It is derived from the religious precepts of Islam and is based on the sacred scriptures of Islam, particularly the Quran and the ...
to provide means to deal with current issues from an Islamic perspective. In other words, clergymen in Twelver Shīʿīsm are believed to be the guardians of ''fiqh'', which is believed to have been defined by Muhammad and his twelve successors. This process is known as '' ijtihad'' and the clerics are known as '' marjaʿ'', meaning "reference"; the labels '' Allamah'' and '' Ayatollah'' are in use for Twelver clerics.
Islamists
Islamist Shīʿīsm ( fa, تشیع اخوانی) is a new denomination within Twelver Shīʿīsm greatly inspired by the political ideology of the Muslim Brotherhood and mysticism of Ibn Arabi. It sees Islam as a political system and differs from the other mainstream Usuli and Akhbari groups in favoring the idea of the establishment of an Islamic state in Occultation under the rule of the 12th Imam. Hadi Khosroshahi was the first person to identify himself as '' ikhwani'' (Islamist) Shīʿa Muslim. Because of the concept of the hidden Imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi, Shīʿa Islam is inherently secular in the age of Occultation, therefore Islamist Shīʿa Muslims had to borrow ideas from Sunnī Islamists and adjust them in accordance with the doctrine of Shīʿīsm. Its foundations were laid during the Persian Constitutional Revolution at the start of 20th century in Qajar Iran (1905–1911), when Fazlullah Nouri supported the Persian king Ahmad Shah Qajar
Ahmad Shah Qajar ( fa, احمد شاه قاجار; 21 January 1898 – 21 February 1930) was Shah of Persia (Iran) from 16 July 1909 to 15 December 1925, and the last ruling member of the Qajar dynasty.
Ahmad Shah was born in Tabriz on 21 Januar ...
against the will of Muhammad Kazim Khurasani
Ayatullah Sheikh Muhammad Kazim Khurasani ( fa, ; 1839 – 12 December 1911), commonly known as Akhund Khurasani ( fa, ) was a Shia jurist and political activist.
He is known for using his position as a Marja as legitimizing force behind the ...
, the Usuli '' marjaʿ'' of the time.
Ismāʿīlī (''Sevener'')
Ismāʿīlīs, otherwise known as ''Sevener'', derive their name from their acceptance of Ismāʿīl ibn Jaʿfar as the divinely appointed spiritual successor ( Imam) to Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq, the 6th Shīʿīte Imam, wherein they differ from the Twelvers, who recognize Mūsā al-Kāẓim, younger brother of Ismāʿīl, as the true Imam.
After the death or Occultation of Muhammad ibn Imam Ismāʿīl in the 8th century CE, the teachings of Ismāʿīlīsm further transformed into the belief system as it is known today, with an explicit concentration on the deeper, esoteric meaning ('' bāṭin'') of the Islamic faith. With the eventual development of Twelver Shīʿīsm into the more literalistic ''( zahīr)'' oriented Akhbari and later Usuli schools of thought, Shīʿīsm further developed in two separate directions: the metaphorical Ismāʿīlī group focusing on the mystical
Mysticism is popularly known as becoming one with God or the Absolute, but may refer to any kind of ecstasy or altered state of consciousness which is given a religious or spiritual meaning. It may also refer to the attainment of insight in u ...
path and nature of God and the divine manifestation in the personage of the "Imam of the Time" as the "Face of God", with the more literalistic Twelver group focusing on divine law
Divine law is any body of law that is perceived as deriving from a transcendent source, such as the will of God or godsin contrast to man-made law or to secular law. According to Angelos Chaniotis and Rudolph F. Peters, divine laws are typicall ...
(''sharī'ah'') and the deeds and sayings (''sunnah'') attributed to Muhammad and his successors (the ''Ahl al-Bayt''), who as A'immah were guides and a light (''nūr'') to God.
Though there are several subsects amongst the Ismāʿīlīs, the term in today's vernacular generally refers to the Shīʿa Imami Ismāʿīlī Nizārī community, often referred to as the ''Ismāʿīlīs'' by default, who are followers of the Aga Khan and the largest group within Ismāʿīlīsm. Another Shīʿa Imami Ismāʿīlī community are the Dawudi Bohras, led by a '' Da'i al-Mutlaq'' ("Unrestricted Missionary") as representative of a hidden Imam. While there are many other branches with extremely differing exterior practices, much of the spiritual theology has remained the same since the days of the faith's early Imams. In recent centuries, Ismāʿīlīs have largely been an Indo-Iranian community, but they can also be found in India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
, Pakistan, Syria, Palestine, Saudi Arabia, Yemen
Yemen (; ar, ٱلْيَمَن, al-Yaman), officially the Republic of Yemen,, ) is a country in Western Asia. It is situated on the southern end of the Arabian Peninsula, and borders Saudi Arabia to the Saudi Arabia–Yemen border, north and ...
, Jordan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan
Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan,; prs, امارت اسلامی افغانستان is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central Asia and South Asia. Referred to as the Heart of Asia, it is bordere ...
, East
East or Orient is one of the four cardinal directions or points of the compass. It is the opposite direction from west and is the direction from which the Sun rises on the Earth.
Etymology
As in other languages, the word is formed from the fac ...
and South Africa
South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa (RSA), is the Southern Africa, southernmost country in Africa. It is bounded to the south by of coastline that stretch along the Atlantic Ocean, South Atlantic and Indian Oceans; to the ...
, and in recent years several Ismāʿīlīs have emigrated to China, Western Europe (primarily in the United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Europe, off the north-western coast of the European mainland, continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotlan ...
), Australia, New Zealand, and North America.
Ismāʿīlī Imams
In the Nizārī Ismāʿīlī
Isma'ilism ( ar, الإسماعيلية, al-ʾIsmāʿīlīyah) is a branch or sub-sect of Shia Islam. The Isma'ili () get their name from their acceptance of Imam Isma'il ibn Jafar as the appointed spiritual successor (imām) to Ja'far al-S ...
interpretation of Shīʿa Islam, the Imam is the guide and the intercessor between humans and God, and the individual through whom God is recognized. He is also responsible for the esoteric interpretation of the Quran
Esoteric interpretation of the Quran ( ar, تأويل, taʾwīl) is the allegorical interpretation of the Quran or the quest for its hidden, inner meanings. The Arabic word ''taʾwīl'' was synonymous with conventional interpretation in its earl ...
(''taʾwīl''). He is the possessor of divine knowledge and therefore the "Prime Teacher". According to the "Epistle of the Right Path", a Persian Ismāʿīlī prose text from the post- Mongol period of Ismāʿīlī history, by an anonymous author, there has been a chain of Imams since the beginning of time, and there will continue to be an Imam present on the Earth until the end of time. The worlds would not exist in perfection without this uninterrupted chain of Imams. The proof ('' hujja'') and gate ('' bāb'') of the Imam are always aware of his presence and are witness to this uninterrupted chain.
After the death of Ismāʿīl ibn Jaʿfar, many Ismāʿīlīs believed that one day the eschatological figure of Imam Mahdi, whom they believed to be Muhammad ibn Imam Ismāʿīl, would return and establish an age of justice. One group included the violent Qarmatians, who had a stronghold in Bahrain
Bahrain ( ; ; ar, البحرين, al-Bahrayn, locally ), officially the Kingdom of Bahrain, ' is an island country in Western Asia. It is situated on the Persian Gulf, and comprises a small archipelago made up of 50 natural islands and an ...
. In contrast, some Ismāʿīlīs believed the Imamate ''did'' continue, and that the Imams were in Occultation and still communicated and taught their followers through a network of '' Da'i'' ("Missionaries").
In 909 CE, Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah, a claimant to the Ismāʿīlī Imamate, established the Fatimid Caliphate. During this period, three lineages of Imams were formed. The first branch, known today as the Druze, began with Al-Ḥākim bi-Amr Allāh. Born in 985 CE, he ascended as ruler at the age of eleven. When in 1021 CE his mule returned without him, soaked in blood, a religious group that was forming in his lifetime broke off from mainstream Ismāʿīlīsm and didn't acknowledge his successor. Later to be known as the Druze, they believe Al-Ḥākim to be God incarnate and the prophesied Mahdi on Earth, who would one day return and bring justice to the world. The Druze faith further split from Ismāʿīlīsm as it developed into a distinct monotheistic Abrahamic religion and ethno-religious group with its own unique doctrines, and finally separated from both Ismāʿīlīsm and Islam altogether. Thus, the Druze don't identify themselves as Muslims, and aren't considered as such by Muslims either.
The second split occurred between Nizārī and Musta‘lī Ismāʿīlīs following the death of Ma'ad al-Mustansir Billah in 1094 CE. His rule was the longest of any caliph in any Islamic empire. Upon his passing away, his sons, Nizār (the older) and Al-Musta‘lī (the younger), fought for political and spiritual control of the dynasty. Nizār was defeated and jailed, but according to the Nizārī tradition his son escaped to Alamut, where the Iranian Ismāʿīlī had accepted his claim. From here on, the Nizārī Ismāʿīlī community has continued with a present, living Imam.
The Musta‘lī Ismāʿīlīs split between the Ṭayyibi and the Ḥāfiẓi; Ṭayyibi Ismāʿīlīs, also known as "Bohras", are further divided between Dawudi Bohras, Sulaymani Bohras, and Alavi Bohras
The Alavi Bohras are a Tayyibi Musta'lavi Isma'ili Shi'i Muslim community from Gujarat, India. In India, during the time of the 18th Fatimid Imam Al-Mustansir Billah around 1093 AD in Egypt, the designated learned people (''wulaat'') wh ...
. The former denomination claims that At-Tayyib Abi l-Qasim
Al-Ṭayyib Abūʾl-Qāsim ibn Al-Manṣūr ( ar, ٱلطَّيِّب أَبُو ٱلْقَاسِم ابْن ٱلْمَنْصُوْر) was, according to the Tayyibi Isma'ili-Musta'li sect of Isma'ilism, the twenty-first Imam and the last Calip ...
, son of Al-Amir bi-Ahkami l-Lah, and the Imams following him went into a period of anonymity (''Dawr-e-Satr'') and appointed a '' Da'i al-Mutlaq'' ("Unrestricted Missionary") to guide the community, in a similar manner as the Ismāʿīlīs had lived after the death of Muhammad ibn Imam Ismāʿīl. The latter denomination claims that the ruling Fatimid caliph was the Imam, and they died out with the fall of the Fatimid Empire.
Pillars
Ismāʿīlīs have categorized their practices which are known as '' seven pillars'':
Contemporary leadership
The Nizārīs place importance on a scholarly institution because of the existence of a present Imam. The Imam of the Age defines the jurisprudence, and his guidance may differ with Imams previous to him because of different times and circumstances. For Nizārī Ismāʿīlīs, the current Imam is Karim al-Husayni Aga Khan IV
Shāh Karim al-Husayni (born 13 December 1936), known by the religious title Mawlānā Hazar Imam by his Ismaili followers and elsewhere as Aga Khan IV, is the 49th and current Imam of Nizari Ismailis, a denomination within Shia Islam. He ha ...
. The Nizārī line of Imams has continued to this day as an uninterrupted chain.
Divine leadership has continued in the Bohra branch through the institution of the "Missionary" ('' Da'i''). According to the Bohra tradition, before the last Imam, At-Tayyib Abi l-Qasim, went into seclusion, his father, the 20th Al-Amir bi-Ahkami l-Lah, had instructed Al-Hurra Al-Malika the Malika ( Queen consort) in Yemen to appoint a vicegerent after the seclusion—the '' Da'i al-Mutlaq'' ("Unrestricted Missionary"), who as the Imam's vicegerent has full authority to govern the community in all matters both spiritual and temporal while the lineage of Musta‘lī- Ṭayyibi Imams remains in seclusion (''Dawr-e-Satr''). The three branches of Musta‘lī Ismāʿīlīs ( Dawudi Bohras, Sulaymani Bohras, and Alavi Bohras
The Alavi Bohras are a Tayyibi Musta'lavi Isma'ili Shi'i Muslim community from Gujarat, India. In India, during the time of the 18th Fatimid Imam Al-Mustansir Billah around 1093 AD in Egypt, the designated learned people (''wulaat'') wh ...
) differ on who the current "Unrestricted Missionary" is.
Zaydī (''Fiver'')
Zaydīsm, otherwise known as Zaydīyyah or Zaydī, is a branch of Shīʿa Islam named after Zayd ibn ʿAlī. Followers of the Zaydī school of jurisprudence are called Zaydīs or occasionally ''Fivers''. However, there is also a group called ''Zaydī Wasītīs'' who are Twelvers (see below). Zaydīs constitute roughly 42–47% of the population of Yemen.
Doctrine
The Zaydīs, Twelvers, and Ismāʿīlīs all recognize the same first four Imams; however, the Zaydīs consider Zayd ibn ʿAlī as the 5th Imam. After the time of Zayd ibn ʿAlī, the Zaydīs believed that any descendant (''Sayyid'') of Ḥasan ibn ʿAlī or Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī could become the next Imam, after fulfilling certain conditions. Other well-known Zaydī Imams in history were Yahya ibn Zayd, Muhammad al-Nafs al-Zakiyya
Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn al- Ḥasan al-Muthannā ibn al- Ḥasan al-Mujtabā ibn ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib or Muḥammad al-Nafs al-Zakīyya ( ar, محمد بن عبد الله بن الحسن بن الحسن بن علي الملقَّب ...
, and Ibrahim ibn Abdullah.
The Zaydī doctrine of Imamah doesn't presuppose the infallibility of the Imam, nor the belief that the Imams are supposed to receive divine guidance. Moreover, Zaydīs don't believe that the Imamate must pass from father to son but believe it can be held by any '' Sayyid'' descended from either Ḥasan ibn ʿAlī or Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī (as was the case after the death of the former). Historically, Zaydīs held that Zayd ibn ʿAlī was the rightful successor of the 4th Imam since he led a rebellion against the Umayyads in protest of their tyranny and corruption. Muhammad al-Baqir did not engage in political action, and the followers of Zayd ibn ʿAlī maintained that a true Imam must fight against corrupt rulers.
Jurisprudence
In matters of Islamic jurisprudence, Zaydīs follow the teachings of Zayd ibn ʿAlī, which are documented in his book ''Majmu'l Fiqh'' (in Arabic: ). Al-Ḥādī ila'l-Ḥaqq Yaḥyā, the first Zaydī Imam and founder of the Zaydī State in Yemen, is regarded as the codifier of Zaydī jurisprudence, and as such most Zaydī Shīʿas today are known as ''Hadawis''.
Timeline
The Idrisids ( ar, ) were Arab Zaydī Shīʿas whose dynasty, named after its first sultan, Idris I
Idris (I) ibn Abd Allah ( ar, إدريس بن عبد الله, translit=Idrīs ibn ʿAbd Allāh), also known as Idris the Elder ( ar, إدريس الأكبر, translit=Idrīs al-Akbar), (d. 791) was an Arab Hasanid Sharif and the founder of the ...
, ruled in the western Maghreb from 788 to 985 CE. Another Zaydī State was established in the region of Gilan, Deylaman, and Tabaristan (northern Iran
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...
) in 864 CE by the Alavids; it lasted until the death of its leader at the hand of the Samanids People
Samanid
Samanid
Samanid
The Samanid Empire ( fa, سامانیان, Sāmāniyān) also known as the Samanian Empire, Samanid dynasty, Samanid amirate, or simply as the Samanids) was a Persianate Sunni Muslim empire, of Iranian dehqan orig ...
in 928 CE. Roughly forty years later, the Zaydī State was revived in Gilan and survived under Hasanid leaders until 1126 CE. Afterwards, from the 12th to 13th centuries, the Zaydī Shīʿas of Deylaman, Gilan, and Tabaristan then acknowledged the Zaydī Imams of Yemen
The Imams of Yemen, later also titled the Kings of Yemen, were religiously consecrated leaders belonging to the Zaidiyyah branch of Shia Islam. They established a blend of religious and temporal-political rule in parts of Yemen from 897. Their i ...
or rival Zaydī Imams within Iran.
The Buyids
The Buyid dynasty ( fa, آل بویه, Āl-e Būya), also spelled Buwayhid ( ar, البويهية, Al-Buwayhiyyah), was a Shia Iranian dynasty of Daylamite origin, which mainly ruled over Iraq and central and southern Iran from 934 to 1062. Coup ...
were initially Zaydī Shīʿas, as were the Banu Ukhaidhir rulers of al-Yamama in the 9th and 10th centuries. The leader of the Zaydī community took the title of caliph; thus, the ruler of Yemen was known by this title. Al-Hadi Yahya bin al-Hussain bin al-Qasim ar-Rassi, a descendant of Ḥasan ibn ʿAlī, founded the Zaydī Imamate at Sa'dah
Saada ( ar, صَعْدَة, translit=Ṣaʿda), a city and ancient capital in the northwest of Yemen, is the capital and largest city of the province of the same name, and the county seat of the county of the same name. The city is located in the ...
in 893–897 CE, and the Rassid dynasty
The Imams of Yemen and later also the Kings of Yemen were religiously consecrated leaders belonging to the Zaidiyyah branch of Shia Islam. They established a blend of religious and political rule in parts of Yemen from 897. Their imamate endured u ...
continued to rule over Yemen until the middle of the 20th century, when the republican revolution of 1962 deposed the last Zaydī Imam. (''See'': Arab Cold War). The founding Zaydī branch in Yemen was the Jarudiyya; however, with increasing interaction with the Ḥanafī and Shāfiʿī schools of Sunnī jurisprudence, there was a shift from the Jarudiyya group to the Sulaimaniyya, Tabiriyya, Butriyya, and Salihiyya. Zaydī Shīʿas form the second dominant religious group in Yemen. Currently, they constitute about 40–45% of the population in Yemen; Jaʿfaris and Ismāʿīlīs constitute the 2–5%. In Saudi Arabia, it is estimated that there are over 1 million Zaydī Shīʿas, primarily based in the western provinces.
Currently, the most prominent Zaydī political movement is the Houthi movement in Yemen
Yemen (; ar, ٱلْيَمَن, al-Yaman), officially the Republic of Yemen,, ) is a country in Western Asia. It is situated on the southern end of the Arabian Peninsula, and borders Saudi Arabia to the Saudi Arabia–Yemen border, north and ...
, known by the name of ''Shabab al-Mu'mineen'' ("Believing Youth") or ''Ansar Allah'' ("Partisans of God"). In 2014–2015, Houthis took over the Yemeni government in Sana'a, which led to the fall of the Saudi Arabian-backed government of Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi. Houthis and their allies gained control of a significant part of Yemen's territory, and resisted the Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen seeking to restore Hadi in power. (''See'': Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict
{{Infobox military conflict
, conflict = Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict
, width =
, partof = the Arab Winter
, image = Iran Saudi conflict 2022.png
, image_size = 300px
, caption ...
). Both the Houthis and the Saudi Arabian-led coalition were being attacked by the Sunnī Islamist militant group and Salafi-jihadist terrorist organization ISIL/ISIS/IS/Daesh.
History
Succession of ʿAlī
Shīʿa Muslims believe that just as a prophet is appointed by God
In monotheistic thought, God is usually viewed as the supreme being, creator, and principal object of faith. Swinburne, R.G. "God" in Honderich, Ted. (ed)''The Oxford Companion to Philosophy'', Oxford University Press, 1995. God is typically ...
alone, only God has the prerogative to appoint the successor to his prophet. They believe God chose ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib to be Muhammad's successor, infallible, the first caliph (''khalīfa'', head of state) of Islam. Shīʿa Muslims believe that Muhammad designated Ali as his successor by God's command ( Eid Al Ghadir). ʿAlī was Muhammad's first-cousin and closest living male relative as well as his son-in-law, having married Muhammad's daughter, Fāṭimah.[Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions, Wendy Doniger, Consulting Editor, Merriam-Webster, Incorporated, Springfield, MA 1999, , LoC: BL31.M47 1999, p. 525]["Esposito, John. "What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam" Oxford University Press, 2002. . p. 46]
The Party of ʿAlī
Even during the time of Muhammad, there were signs of split among the companions with Salman al-Farsi
Salman the Persian or Salmān al-Fārsī ( ar, سَلْمَان ٱلْفَارِسِيّ), born Rūzbeh Khoshnūdān ( fa, ), was a Persian companion (Sahaba) of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. He was raised as a Zoroastrian in Sasanian Persia, t ...
, Abu Dharr al-Ghifari, Miqdad, and Ammar ibn Yasir amongst the most vehement and loyal supporters of ʿAlī.[
*]
The event of Dhul Asheera
During the revelation of Ash-Shu'ara, the twenty-sixth Surah
A ''surah'' (; ar, سورة, sūrah, , ), is the equivalent of "chapter" in the Qur'an. There are 114 ''surahs'' in the Quran, each divided into '' ayats'' (verses). The chapters or ''surahs'' are of unequal length; the shortest surah (''Al-Ka ...
of the Quran
The Quran (, ; Standard Arabic: , Quranic Arabic: , , 'the recitation'), also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation from God. It is organized in 114 chapters (pl.: , s ...
, in 617 CE, Muhammad is said to have received instructions to warn his family members against adhering to their pre-Islamic religious practices. There are differing accounts of Muhammad's attempt to do this, with one version stating that he had invited his relatives to a meal (later termed the Feast of Dhul Asheera), during which he gave the pronouncement. According to Ibn Ishaq, it consisted of the following speech:
Among those gathered, only ʿAlī offered his consent. Some sources, such as the ''Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal
''Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal'' ( ar, مسند أحمد بن حنبل) is a collection of musnad hadith compiled by the Islamic scholar Ahmad ibn Hanbal (d. 241 AH/855 AD) to whom the Hanbali fiqh (legislation) is attributed.
Description
It is on ...
'', do not record Muhammad's reaction to this, though Ibn Ishaq continues that he then declared ʿAlī to be his brother, heir and successor. In another narration, when Muhammad accepted ʿAlī's offer, he "threw up his arms around the generous youth, and pressed him to his bosom" and said, "Behold my brother, my vizir, my vicegerent ... let all listen to his words, and obey him." The direct appointment of ʿAlī as heir in this version is notable in that it alleges that his right to succession was established at the very beginning of Muhammad's prophetic activity. The association with the revelation of a Quranic verse also serves the purpose of providing the nomination with authenticity as well as a divine authorization.
Event of Ghadir Khumm
The ''ḥadīth'' report of Ghadir Khumm has many different variations and is transmitted by both Sunnī and Shīʿa sources. The narrations generally state that in March 632, Muhammad, while returning from his Farewell Pilgrimage alongside a large number of followers and companions, stopped at the oasis of Ghadir Khumm. There, he took ʿAlī's hand and addressed the gathering. The point of contention between different sects arises when Muhammad, whilst giving his speech, gave the proclamation "Anyone who has me as his ''mawla
Mawlā ( ar, مَوْلَى, plural ''mawālī'' ()), is a polysemous Arabic word, whose meaning varied in different periods and contexts.A.J. Wensinck, Encyclopedia of Islam 2nd ed, Brill. "Mawlā", vol. 6, p. 874.
Before the Islamic prophet ...
'', has ʿAlī as his ''mawla.''" Some versions add the additional sentence "O God, befriend the friend of ʿAlī and be the enemy of his enemy."
''Mawla'' has a number of meanings in Arabic, with interpretations of Muhammad's use here being split along sectarian lines between the Sunnī and Shīʿa Muslims. Among the former group, the word is translated as "friend" or "one who is loyal/close" and that Muhammad was advocating that ʿAlī was deserving of friendship and respect. Conversely, Shīʿa Muslims tend to view the meaning as being "master" or "ruler", and that the statement was a clear designation of ʿAlī being Muhammad's appointed successor. Shīʿa sources also record further details of the event, such as stating that those present congratulated ʿAlī and acclaimed him as '' Amir al-Mu'minin'' ("commander of the believers").[
]
Caliphate of ʿAlī
When Muhammad died in 632 CE, ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib and Muhammad's closest relatives made the funeral arrangements. While they were preparing his body, Abū Bakr, ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb, and Abu Ubaidah ibn al Jarrah
ʿĀmir ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn al-Jarrāḥ ( ar, عامر بن عبدالله بن الجراح; 583–639 CE), better known as Abū ʿUbayda ( ar, أبو عبيدة ) was a Muslim commander and one of the Companions of the Islamic prophet M ...
met with the leaders of Medina and elected Abū Bakr as caliph. ʿAlī did not accept the caliphate of Abū Bakr and refused to pledge allegiance to him. This is indicated in a ''ḥadīth'' report which both Sunnī and Shīʿa Muslims regard as '' sahih'' (authentic).
Ibn Qutaybah
Abū Muḥammad ʿAbd Allāh ibn Muslim ibn Qutayba al-Dīnawarī al-Marwazī better known simply as Ibn Qutaybah ( ar-at, ابن قتيبة, Ibn Qutaybah; c. 828 – 13 November 889 CE / 213 – 15 Rajab 276 AH) was an Islamic scholar of Persian ...
, a 9th-century Sunnī Islamic scholar narrates of ʿAlī:I am the servant of God and the brother of the Messenger of God. I am thus more worthy of this office than you. I shall not give allegiance to you bu Bakr & Umarwhen it is more proper for you to give bayʼah to me. You have seized this office from the Ansar using your tribal relationship to the Prophet as an argument against them. Would you then seize this office from us, the ahl al-bayt by force? Did you not claim before the Ansar that you were more worthy than they of the caliphate because Muhammad came from among you (but Muhammad was never from Abu Bakr's family) – and thus they gave you leadership and surrendered command? I now contend against you with the same argument…It is we who are more worthy of the Messenger of God, living or dead. Give us our due right if you truly have faith in God, or else bear the charge of wilfully doing wrong... Umar, I will not yield to your commands: I shall not pledge loyalty to him.' Ultimately Abu Bakr said, "O 'Ali! If you do not desire to give your bay'ah, I am not going to force you for the same.
ʿAlī's wife and daughter of Muhammad, Fāṭimah, refused to pledge allegiance to Abū Bakr and remained angry with him until she died due to the issues of Fadak, the inheritance from her father, and the situation of ʿUmar at Fāṭimah's house; this is stated in various Sunnī ''ḥadīth'' collections, including '' Sahih al-Bukhari'' and '' Sahih Muslim''. Fāṭimah never pledged allegiance to Abū Bakr; neither did she acknowledge or accept his claim to the caliphate. Almost all members of Banu Hashim, the Quraysh tribe to which Muhammad belonged, and many of his closest companions (the ''ṣaḥāba'') had supported ʿAlī's cause after the death of Muhammad
Muhammad ( ar, مُحَمَّد; 570 – 8 June 632 CE) was an Arab religious, social, and political leader and the founder of Islam. According to Islamic doctrine, he was a prophet divinely inspired to preach and confirm the mono ...
, whilst others supported Abū Bakr.
It was not until the murder of the third '' rāshidūn'' caliph, ʿUthmān (657 CE), that the Muslims of Medina
Medina,, ', "the radiant city"; or , ', (), "the city" officially Al Madinah Al Munawwarah (, , Turkish: Medine-i Münevvere) and also commonly simplified as Madīnah or Madinah (, ), is the second-holiest city in Islam, and the capital of the ...
in desperation invited ʿAlī to become the fourth caliph as the last source, and he established his capital in Kufa
Kufa ( ar, الْكُوفَة ), also spelled Kufah, is a city in Iraq, about south of Baghdad, and northeast of Najaf. It is located on the banks of the Euphrates River. The estimated population in 2003 was 110,000. Currently, Kufa and Najaf a ...
(present-day Iraq). ʿAlī's rule over the early Muslim community was often contested, and wars were waged against him. As a result, he had to struggle to maintain his power against the groups who betrayed him after giving allegiance to his succession, or those who wished to take his position. This dispute eventually led to the First Fitna, which was the first major civil war between Muslims within the early Islamic empire. The First Fitna began as a series of revolts fought against ʿAlī, caused by the assassination of his political predecessor, ʿUthmān. While the rebels had previously affirmed the legitimacy of ʿAlī's ''khilafāʾ'' (caliphate), they later turned against ʿAlī and fought him. ʿAlī ruled from 656 CE to 661 CE, when he was assassinated while prostrating in prayer ('' sujud''). ʿAlī's main rival, Muawiyah
Mu‘āwīyya or Muawiyah or Muaawiya () is a male Arabic given name of disputed meaning. It was the name of the first Umayyad caliph.
Notable bearers of this name include:
* Mu'awiya I (602–680), first Umayyad Caliph (r. 661–680)
* Muawiya ...
, then claimed the caliphate.
The connection between the Indus Valley and Shīʿa Islam was established through the early Muslim conquests. According to Derryl N. Maclean, a link between the Sindh region
Sindh (; ; ur, , ; historically romanized as Sind) is one of the four provinces of Pakistan. Located in the southeastern region of the country, Sindh is the third-largest province of Pakistan by land area and the second-largest province ...
and Shīʿas or proto-Shīʿas can be traced to Hakim ibn Jabalah al-Abdi, a companion of Muhammad, who traveled across the Sindh to Makran in the year 649 CE, and presented a report on the area to the caliph. He supported ʿAlī, and died in the Battle of the Camel alongside Sindhi Jats. He was also a poet and few couplets of his poem in praise of ʿAlī have survived, as reported in Chachnama:
During the caliphate of ʿAlī, many Jats came under the influence of Shīʿa Islam. Harith ibn Murrah Al-abdi and Sayfi ibn Fil' al-Shaybani, both officers of ʿAlī's army, attacked Sindhi bandits and chased them to Al-Qiqan (present-day Quetta) in the year 658 CE. Sayfi was one of the seven Shīʿa Muslims who were beheaded alongside Hujr ibn Adi al-Kindi in 660 CE, near Damascus.
Ḥasan ibn ʿAlī
Upon the death of ʿAlī, his elder son Ḥasan became leader of the Muslims of Kufa, and after a series of skirmishes between the Kufa Muslims and the army of Muawiyah, Ḥasan agreed to cede the caliphate to Muawiyah and maintain peace among Muslims upon certain conditions:
# The enforced public cursing of ʿAlī, e.g. during prayers, should be abandoned
# Muawiyah should not use tax money for his own private needs
# There should be peace, and followers of Ḥasan should be given security and their rights
# Muawiyah will never adopt the title of '' Amir al-Mu'minin'' ("commander of the believers")
# Muawiyah will not nominate any successor
Ḥasan then retired to Medina
Medina,, ', "the radiant city"; or , ', (), "the city" officially Al Madinah Al Munawwarah (, , Turkish: Medine-i Münevvere) and also commonly simplified as Madīnah or Madinah (, ), is the second-holiest city in Islam, and the capital of the ...
, where in 670 CE he was poisoned by his wife Ja'da bint al-Ash'ath ibn Qays, after being secretly contacted by Muawiyah who wished to pass the caliphate to his own son Yazid and saw Ḥasan as an obstacle.
Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī
Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī, ʿAlī's younger son and brother to Ḥasan, initially resisted calls to lead the Muslims against Muawiyah and reclaim the caliphate. In 680 CE, Muawiyah died and passed the caliphate to his son Yazid, and breaking the treaty with Ḥasan ibn ʿAlī. Yazid asked Husayn to swear allegiance (''bay'ah
''Bayʿah'' ( ar, بَيْعَة, "Pledge of allegiance"), in Islamic terminology, is an oath of allegiance to a leader. It is known to have been practiced by the Islamic prophet Muhammad. ''Bayʿah'' is sometimes taken under a written pact gi ...
'') to him. ʿAlī's faction, having expected the caliphate to return to ʿAlī's line upon Muawiyah's death, saw this as a betrayal of the peace treaty and so Ḥusayn rejected this request for allegiance. There was a groundswell of support in Kufa for Ḥusayn to return there and take his position as caliph and Imam, so Ḥusayn collected his family and followers in Medina and set off for Kufa. En route to Kufa, he was blocked by an army of Yazid's men, which included people from Kufa, near Karbala (modern Iraq); Ḥusayn and approximately 72 of his family members and followers were killed in the Battle of Karbala
The Battle of Karbala ( ar, مَعْرَكَة كَرْبَلَاء) was fought on 10 October 680 (10 Muharram in the year 61 AH of the Islamic calendar) between the army of the second Umayyad Caliph Yazid I and a small army led by Husayn ...
.
Shīʿa Muslims regard Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī as a martyr (''shahid
''Shaheed'' ( , , ; pa, ਸ਼ਹੀਦ) denotes a martyr in Islam. The word is used frequently in the Quran in the generic sense of "witness" but only once in the sense of "martyr" (i.e. one who dies for his faith); ...
''), and count him as an Imam from the ''Ahl al-Bayt''. They view Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī as the defender of Islam from annihilation at the hands of Yazid I. Ḥusayn is the last Imam following ʿAlī mutually recognized by all branches of Shīʿa Islam. The Battle of Karbala and martyrdom of Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī is often cited as the definitive separation between the Shīʿa and Sunnī sects of Islam, and is commemorated each year by Shīʿa Muslims on the Day of Ashura
A day is the time period of a full rotation of the Earth with respect to the Sun. On average, this is 24 hours, 1440 minutes, or 86,400 seconds. In everyday life, the word "day" often refers to a solar day, which is the length between two s ...
.
Imamate of the ''Ahl al-Bayt''
Later, most denominations of Shīʿa Islam, including Twelvers
Twelver Shīʿīsm ( ar, ٱثْنَا عَشَرِيَّة; '), also known as Imāmīyyah ( ar, إِمَامِيَّة), is the largest branch of Shīʿa Islam, comprising about 85 percent of all Shīʿa Muslims. The term ''Twelver'' refers t ...
and Ismāʿīlīs, became Imamis. Imami Shīʿītes believe that Imams are the spiritual and political successors to Muhammad. Imams are human individuals who not only rule over the Muslim community with justice, but also are able to keep and interpret the divine law and its esoteric meaning. The words and deeds of Muhammad and the Imams are a guide and model for the community to follow; as a result, they must be free from error and sin, and must be chosen by divine decree
''Qadar'' ( ar, قدر, transliterated ''qadar'', meaning literally "power",J. M. Cowan (ed.) (1976). ''The Hans Wehr Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic''. Wiesbaden, Germany: Spoken Language Services. but translated variously as: "Fate", "Div ...
(''nass'') through Muhammad.[Nasr (1979), p. 10] According to this view peculiar to Shīʿa Islam, there is always an Imam of the Age, who is the divinely appointed authority on all matters of faith and law in the Muslim community. ʿAlī was the first Imam of this line, the rightful successor to Muhammad, followed by male descendants of Muhammad through his daughter Fatimah.
This difference between following either the '' Ahl al-Bayt'' (Muhammad's family and descendants) or pledging allegiance to Abū Bakr has shaped the Shīʿa—Sunnī divide on the interpretation of some Quranic verses, ''ḥadīth'' literature (accounts of the sayings and living habits attributed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad during his lifetime), and other areas of Islamic belief throughout the history of Islam. For instance, the ''ḥadīth'' collections venerated by Shīʿa Muslims are centered on narrations by members of the ''Ahl al-Bayt'' and their supporters, while some ''ḥadīth'' transmitted by narrators not belonging to or supporting the ''Ahl al-Bayt'' are not included. Those of Abu Hurairah, for example, Ibn Asakir in his ''Taʿrikh Kabir'', and Muttaqi in his ''Kanzuʿl-Umma'' report that ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb lashed him, rebuked him, and forbade him to narrate ''ḥadīth'' from Muhammad. ʿUmar is reported to have said: "Because you narrate hadith in large numbers from the Holy Prophet, you are fit only for attributing lies to him. (That is, one expects a wicked man like you to utter only lies about the Holy Prophet.) So you must stop narrating hadith from the Prophet; otherwise, I will send you to the land of Dus." (An Arab clan in Yemen
Yemen (; ar, ٱلْيَمَن, al-Yaman), officially the Republic of Yemen,, ) is a country in Western Asia. It is situated on the southern end of the Arabian Peninsula, and borders Saudi Arabia to the Saudi Arabia–Yemen border, north and ...
, to which Abu Hurairah belonged). According to Sunnī Muslims, ʿAlī was the fourth successor to Abū Bakr, while Shīʿa Muslims maintain that ʿAlī was the first divinely sanctioned "Imam", or successor of Muhammad. The seminal event in Shīʿa history is the martyrdom at the Battle of Karbala
The Battle of Karbala ( ar, مَعْرَكَة كَرْبَلَاء) was fought on 10 October 680 (10 Muharram in the year 61 AH of the Islamic calendar) between the army of the second Umayyad Caliph Yazid I and a small army led by Husayn ...
of ʿAlī's son, Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī, and 71 of his followers in 680 CE, who led a non-allegiance movement against the defiant caliph.
It is believed in Twelver and Ismāʿīlī branches of Shīʿa Islam that divine wisdom (''ʿaql'') was the source of the souls of the prophets and Imams, which bestowed upon them esoteric knowledge
Western esotericism, also known as esotericism, esoterism, and sometimes the Western mystery tradition, is a term scholars use to categorise a wide range of loosely related ideas and movements that developed within Western society. These ideas ...
(''ḥikmah''), and that their sufferings were a means of divine grace to their devotees. Although the Imam was not the recipient of a divine revelation
In religion and theology, revelation is the revealing or disclosing of some form of truth or knowledge through communication with a deity or other supernatural entity or entities.
Background
Inspiration – such as that bestowed by God on the ...
(''waḥy''), he had a close relationship with God
In monotheistic thought, God is usually viewed as the supreme being, creator, and principal object of faith. Swinburne, R.G. "God" in Honderich, Ted. (ed)''The Oxford Companion to Philosophy'', Oxford University Press, 1995. God is typically ...
, through which God guides him, and the Imam, in turn, guides the people. Imamate, or belief in the divine guide, is a fundamental belief in the Twelver and Ismāʿīlī branches of Shīʿa Islam, and is based on the concept that God would not leave humanity without access to divine guidance.
Imam Mahdi, last Imam of the Shīʿa
In Shīʿa Islam, Imam Mahdi is regarded as the prophesied eschatological redeemer of Islam who will rule for seven, nine, or nineteen years (according to differing interpretations) before the Day of Judgment
The Last Judgment, Final Judgment, Day of Reckoning, Day of Judgment, Judgment Day, Doomsday, Day of Resurrection or The Day of the Lord (; ar, یوم القيامة, translit=Yawm al-Qiyāmah or ar, یوم الدین, translit=Yawm ad-Dīn, ...
and will rid the world of evil. According to Islamic tradition, the Mahdi's tenure will coincide with the Second Coming of Jesus (ʿĪsā), who is to assist the Mahdi against the Masih ad-Dajjal
Al-Masih ad-Dajjal (), otherwise referred to simply as the Dajjal, is an evil figure in Islamic eschatology similar to the Antichrist in Christianity, who will pretend to be the promised Messiah, appearing before the Day of Judgment accordin ...
(literally, the "false Messiah" or Antichrist). Jesus, who is considered the ''Masih'' (" Messiah") in Islam, will descend at the point of a white arcade east of Damascus, dressed in yellow robes with his head anointed. He will then join the Mahdi in his war against the Dajjal, where it is believed the Mahdi will slay the Dajjal and unite humankind.
Historians dispute over the origins of Shīʿa Islam, with many Western scholars positing that Shīʿīsm began as a political faction rather than a truly religious movement.[Francis Robinson, ''Atlas of the Islamic World'', p. 23.] Other scholars disagree, considering this concept of religious-political separation to be an anachronistic application of a Western concept.
Dynasties
In the century following the Battle of Karbala
The Battle of Karbala ( ar, مَعْرَكَة كَرْبَلَاء) was fought on 10 October 680 (10 Muharram in the year 61 AH of the Islamic calendar) between the army of the second Umayyad Caliph Yazid I and a small army led by Husayn ...
(680 CE), as various Shia-affiliated groups diffused in the emerging Islamic world, several nations arose based on a Shia leadership or population.
* Idrisids (788–985 CE): a Zaydi
Zaydism (''h'') is a unique branch of Shia Islam that emerged in the eighth century following Zayd ibn Ali‘s unsuccessful rebellion against the Umayyad Caliphate. In contrast to other Shia Muslims of Twelver Shi'ism and Isma'ilism, Zaydis, ...
dynasty in what is now Morocco
* Qarmatians (899–1077 CE): an Ismaili Iranian dynasty. Their headquarters were in East Arabia and Bahrain
Bahrain ( ; ; ar, البحرين, al-Bahrayn, locally ), officially the Kingdom of Bahrain, ' is an island country in Western Asia. It is situated on the Persian Gulf, and comprises a small archipelago made up of 50 natural islands and an ...
. It was founded by Abu Sa'id al-Jannabi.
*Buyids
The Buyid dynasty ( fa, آل بویه, Āl-e Būya), also spelled Buwayhid ( ar, البويهية, Al-Buwayhiyyah), was a Shia Iranian dynasty of Daylamite origin, which mainly ruled over Iraq and central and southern Iran from 934 to 1062. Coup ...
(934–1055 CE): a Twelver Iranian dynasty. at its peak consisted of large portions of modern Iraq and Iran.
*Uqaylids
The Uqaylid dynasty () was a Shia Arab dynasty with several lines that ruled in various parts of Al-Jazira, northern Syria and Iraq in the late tenth and eleventh centuries. The main line, centered in Mosul, ruled from 990 to 1096.
History
Rise ...
(990–1096 CE): a Shia Arab dynasty with several lines that ruled in various parts of Al-Jazira, northern Syria and Iraq.
* Ilkhanate (1256–1335): a Persianate
A Persianate society is a society that is based on or strongly influenced by the Persian language, culture, literature, art and/or identity.
The term "Persianate" is a neologism credited to Marshall Hodgson. In his 1974 book, ''The Venture of I ...
Mongol khanate established in Persia in the 13th century, considered a part of the Mongol Empire. The Ilkhanate was based, originally, on Genghis Khan's campaigns in the Khwarezmid Empire in 1219–1224, and founded by Genghis's grandson, Hulagu
Hulagu Khan, also known as Hülegü or Hulegu ( mn, Хүлэгү/ , lit=Surplus, translit=Hu’legu’/Qülegü; chg, ; Arabic: fa, هولاکو خان, ''Holâku Khân;'' ; 8 February 1265), was a Mongol ruler who conquered much of West ...
, in territories which today comprise most of Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Turkey, and Pakistan. The Ilkhanate initially embraced many religions, but was particularly sympathetic to Buddhism and Christianity. Later Ilkhanate rulers, beginning with Ghazan in 1295, embraced Islam his brother Öljaitü
Öljaitü ( mn, , Öljaitü Qaghan, fa, اولجایتو), also known as Mohammad-e Khodabande ( fa, محمد خدابنده, ''khodābande'' from Persian meaning the "slave of God" or "servant of God"; 1280 – December 16, 1316), was the eig ...
promoted Shia Islam.
* Bahmanids (1347–1527): a Shia Muslim state of the Deccan
The large Deccan Plateau in southern India is located between the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats, and is loosely defined as the peninsular region between these ranges that is south of the Narmada river. To the north, it is bounded by the ...
in southern India and one of the great medieval Indian kingdoms. Bahmanid Sultanate was the first independent Islamic Kingdom in South India.
Fatimid Caliphate
* Fatimids (909–1171 CE): Controlled much of North Africa, the Levant, parts of Arabia and Mecca
Mecca (; officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, commonly shortened to Makkah ()) is a city and administrative center of the Mecca Province of Saudi Arabia, and the holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red Sea, in a narrow ...
and Medina
Medina,, ', "the radiant city"; or , ', (), "the city" officially Al Madinah Al Munawwarah (, , Turkish: Medine-i Münevvere) and also commonly simplified as Madīnah or Madinah (, ), is the second-holiest city in Islam, and the capital of the ...
. The group takes its name from Fatima, Muhammad's daughter, from whom they claim descent.
* In 909 CE the Shi'i military leader Abu Abdallah al-Shiʻi, overthrew the Sunni ruler in Northern Africa; which began the Fatimid regime.
* Jawhar (general)
Al-Qaid Jawhar ibn Abdallah ( ar, جوهر بن عبد الله, Jawhar ibn ʿAbd Allāh, better known as Jawhar al Siqilli, al-Qaid al-Siqilli (The Sicilian General); died 28 April 992) was a Shia Muslim Fatimid general from the Byzantine (Easte ...
( ar, جوهر; 966–d. 992) was a Fatimid
The Fatimid Caliphate was an Ismaili Shi'a caliphate extant from the tenth to the twelfth centuries AD. Spanning a large area of North Africa, it ranged from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Red Sea in the east. The Fatimids, a dyna ...
general. Under the command of Caliph Al-Mu'izz
Abu Tamim Ma'ad al-Muizz li-Din Allah ( ar, ابو تميم معد المعزّ لدين الله, Abū Tamīm Maʿad al-Muʿizz li-Dīn Allāh, Glorifier of the Religion of God; 26 September 932 – 19 December 975) was the fourth Fatimid calip ...
, he led the conquest of North Africa
North Africa, or Northern Africa is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region, and it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of Mauritania in ...
and then of Egypt, founded the city of Cairo
Cairo ( ; ar, القاهرة, al-Qāhirah, ) is the capital of Egypt and its largest city, home to 10 million people. It is also part of the largest urban agglomeration in Africa, the Arab world and the Middle East: The Greater Cairo metro ...
and the great al-Azhar Mosque
Al-Azhar Mosque ( ar, الجامع الأزهر, al-Jāmiʿ al-ʾAzhar, lit=The Resplendent Congregational Mosque, arz, جامع الأزهر, Gāmiʿ el-ʾazhar), known in Egypt simply as al-Azhar, is a mosque in Cairo, Egypt in the histori ...
. A Greek slave by origin, he was freed by Al-Mu'izz.
Safavid Empire
A major turning point in the history of Shīʿa Islam was the dominion of the Safavid dynasty (1501–1736) in Persia
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...
. This caused a number of changes in the Muslim world:
* The ending of the relative mutual tolerance between Sunnīs and Shīʿas that existed from the time of the Mongol conquests
The Mongol invasions and conquests took place during the 13th and 14th centuries, creating history's largest contiguous empire: the Mongol Empire ( 1206-1368), which by 1300 covered large parts of Eurasia. Historians regard the Mongol devastatio ...
onwards and the resurgence of antagonism between the two groups.
* Initial dependence of Shīʿīte clerics on the state followed by the emergence of an independent body of ''ulama
In Islam, the ''ulama'' (; ar, علماء ', singular ', "scholar", literally "the learned ones", also spelled ''ulema''; feminine: ''alimah'' ingularand ''aalimath'' lural are the guardians, transmitters, and interpreters of religious ...
'' capable of taking a political stand different from official policies.
* The growth in importance of Persian
Persian may refer to:
* People and things from Iran, historically called ''Persia'' in the English language
** Persians, the majority ethnic group in Iran, not to be conflated with the Iranic peoples
** Persian language, an Iranian language of the ...
centers of Islamic education and religious learning, which resulted in the change of Twelver Shīʿīsm from being a predominantly Arab
The Arabs (singular: Arab; singular ar, عَرَبِيٌّ, DIN 31635: , , plural ar, عَرَب, DIN 31635: , Arabic pronunciation: ), also known as the Arab people, are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in Western Asia, ...
phenomenon to become predominantly Persian.
* The growth of the Akhbari school of thought, which taught that only the Quran
The Quran (, ; Standard Arabic: , Quranic Arabic: , , 'the recitation'), also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation from God. It is organized in 114 chapters (pl.: , s ...
, ''ḥadīth'' literature, and '' sunnah'' (accounts of the sayings and living habits attributed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad during his lifetime) are to be bases for verdicts, rejecting the use of reasoning.
With the fall of the Safavids, the state in Persia—including the state system of courts with government-appointed judges
A judge is an official who presides over a court.
Judge or Judges may also refer to:
Roles
*Judge, an alternative name for an adjudicator in a competition in theatre, music, sport, etc.
*Judge, an alternative name/aviator call sign for a membe ...
(''qāḍī'')—became much weaker. This gave the ''sharīʿa'' courts of '' mujtahid'' an opportunity to fill the legal vacuum and enabled the ''ulama'' to assert their judicial authority. The Usuli school of thought also increased in strength at this time.
File:The declaration of Shi'ism as the state religion of Iran by Shah Ismail -Safavids dynasty.jpeg, The declaration of Twelver Shīʿīsm as the state religion of Safavid Persia.
File:Battle of Chaldiran (1514).jpg, Battle of Chaldiran
The Battle of Chaldiran ( fa, جنگ چالدران; tr, Çaldıran Savaşı) took place on 23 August 1514 and ended with a decisive victory for the Ottoman Empire over the Safavid Empire. As a result, the Ottomans annexed Eastern Anatolia and ...
in 1514, was a major sectarian crisis between Muslims in the Middle East.
File:Chaldiran Battlefield Site in 2004.JPG, Monument commemorating the Battle of Chaldiran
The Battle of Chaldiran ( fa, جنگ چالدران; tr, Çaldıran Savaşı) took place on 23 August 1514 and ended with a decisive victory for the Ottoman Empire over the Safavid Empire. As a result, the Ottomans annexed Eastern Anatolia and ...
, where more than 7000 Muslims of the Shīʿa and Sunnī sects killed each other.
Persecution of Shīʿa Muslims
The history of Shīʿa—Sunnī relations has often involved religious discrimination
Religious discrimination is treating a person or group differently because of the particular beliefs which they hold about a religion. This includes instances when adherents of different religions, denominations or non-religions are treated u ...
, persecution, and violence
Violence is the use of physical force so as to injure, abuse, damage, or destroy. Other definitions are also used, such as the World Health Organization's definition of violence as "the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened ...
, dating back to the earliest development of the two competing sects.
At various times throughout the history of Islam, Shīʿa groups and minorities have faced persecution perpetrated by Sunnī Muslims.
Militarily established and holding control over the Umayyad government, many Sunnī rulers perceived the Shīʿas as a threat—both to their political and religious authority. The Sunnī rulers under the Umayyad dynasty sought to marginalize the Shīʿa minority, and later the Abbasids turned on their Shīʿa allies and imprisoned, persecuted, and killed them. The persecution of Shīʿa Muslims throughout history by their Sunnī co-religionists has often been characterized by brutal and genocidal
Genocide is the intentional destruction of a people—usually defined as an ethnic, national, racial, or religious group—in whole or in part. Raphael Lemkin coined the term in 1944, combining the Greek word (, "race, people") with the Latin ...
acts. Comprising only about 10–15% of the global Muslim population, Shīʿa Muslims remain a marginalized community to this day in many Sunnī-dominant Arab countries
The Arab world ( ar, اَلْعَالَمُ الْعَرَبِيُّ '), formally the Arab homeland ( '), also known as the Arab nation ( '), the Arabsphere, or the Arab states, refers to a vast group of countries, mainly located in Western As ...
, without the rights to practice their religion and freely organize.
In 1514, the Ottoman sultan
Sultan (; ar, سلطان ', ) is a position with several historical meanings. Originally, it was an Arabic abstract noun meaning "strength", "authority", "rulership", derived from the verbal noun ', meaning "authority" or "power". Later, it ...
Selim I
Selim I ( ota, سليم الأول; tr, I. Selim; 10 October 1470 – 22 September 1520), known as Selim the Grim or Selim the Resolute ( tr, links=no, Yavuz Sultan Selim), was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1512 to 1520. Despite las ...
(1512–1520) ordered the massacre of 40,000 Alevis and Bektashi
The Bektashi Order; sq, Tarikati Bektashi; tr, Bektaşi or Bektashism is an Islamic Sufi mystic movement originating in the 13th-century. It is named after the Anatolian saint Haji Bektash Wali (d. 1271). The community is currently led by ...
(Anatolian Shīʿa Muslims). According to Jalal Al-e-Ahmad
Seyyed Jalāl Āl-e-Ahmad ( fa, جلال آلاحمد; December 2, 1923September 9, 1969) was a prominent Iranian novelist, short-story writer, translator, philosopher, socio-political critic, sociologist, as well as an anthropologist who wa ...
, "Sultan Selim I carried things so far that he announced that the killing of one Shīʿa had as much otherworldly reward as killing 70 Christians
Christians () are people who follow or adhere to Christianity, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. The words '' Christ'' and ''Christian'' derive from the Koine Greek title ''Christós'' (Χρ ...
." In 1802, the Al Saud-Wahhabi
Wahhabism ( ar, ٱلْوَهَّابِيَةُ, translit=al-Wahhābiyyah) is a Sunni Islamic revivalist and fundamentalist movement associated with the reformist doctrines of the 18th-century Arabian Islamic scholar, theologian, preacher, an ...
armies of the Ikhwan from the First Saudi State
The Emirate of Diriyah (), also known as the First Saudi State, was established in February 1727 (1139 AH). In 1744, the emir of Najdi town called Diriyah Muhammad bin Saud and the religious leader Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab formed an alliance ...
(1727–1818) attacked and sacked the city of Karbala, the Shīʿa shrine in Najaf
Najaf ( ar, ٱلنَّجَف) or An-Najaf al-Ashraf ( ar, ٱلنَّجَف ٱلْأَشْرَف), also known as Baniqia ( ar, بَانِيقِيَا), is a city in central Iraq about 160 km (100 mi) south of Baghdad. Its estimated popula ...
(eastern region of Iraq) that commemorates the martyrdom and death of Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī.
Under Saddam Hussein
Saddam Hussein ( ; ar, صدام حسين, Ṣaddām Ḥusayn; 28 April 1937 – 30 December 2006) was an Iraqi politician who served as the fifth president of Iraq from 16 July 1979 until 9 April 2003. A leading member of the revolution ...
's Ba'athist regime in Iraq (1968–2003), Shīʿa Muslims were heavily persecuted, arrested, tortured, and killed. In March 2011, the Malaysian government
The Government of Malaysia, officially the Federal Government of Malaysia ( ms, Kerajaan Persekutuan Malaysia), is based in the Federal Territory of Putrajaya with the exception of the legislative branch, which is located in Kuala Lumpur. Mala ...
declared Shīʿa Islam a "deviant" sect and banned Shīʿa Muslims from promoting their faith to other Muslims, but left them free to practice it themselves privately.
The most recent and grave attempt by Sunnī Muslims to entirely eradicate the Shīʿa community through violent means was the large-scale genocide of Shīʿa Muslims organized and perpetrated by ISIL/ISIS/IS/Daesh in Syria and Iraq between 2014 and 2018,
which occurred alongside the genocides of many other religious minorities in the same region of the Middle East perpetrated by the aforementioned Sunnī Islamist militant group and Salafi-jihadist terrorist organization.
See also
* Alawi Islam
* Anti-Shi'ism
Anti-Shi'ism is hatred of, prejudice against, discrimination against, persecution of, and violence against Shia Muslims because of their religious beliefs, traditions, and cultural heritage. The term was first used by Shia Rights Watch in 2011 ...
* Criticism of Twelver Shia Islam
Criticism of Twelver Shia Islam dates from the initial ideological rift among early Muslims that led to the two primary denominations of Islam, the Sunnis and the Shias. The question of succession to Muhammad in Islam, the nature of the Imamat ...
* History of Shia Islam
Shi‘a Islam, also known as Shi‘ite Islam or Shi‘ism, is the second largest branch of Islam after Sunni Islam. Shias adhere to the teachings of Muhammad and the religious guidance of his family (who are referred to as the Ahl al-Bayt) or his ...
* Imamate in Shia doctrine
In Shia Islam, the Imamah ( ar, إمامة) is a doctrine which asserts that certain individuals from the lineage of the Islamic prophet Muhammad are to be accepted as leaders and guides of the ummah after the death of Muhammad. Imamah furt ...
** Imamate and guardianship of Ali ibn Abi Talib
Imamate and guardianship of Ali ibn Abi Talib or Imamate in Shia doctrine, Imamate and Wilayah of Ali ibn Abi Talib refers to the spiritual position of Ali (''1st Shia Islam, Shia Imamate in Shia doctrine, Imam'' and ''4th Rashidun Caliph, Cali ...
** Imamate in Ismaili doctrine
The doctrine of the Imamate in Isma'ilism differs from that of the Twelvers because the Isma'ilis had living Imams for centuries after the last Twelver Imam went into concealment. They followed Isma'il ibn Ja'far, elder brother of Musa al-Kadhi ...
** Imamate in Nizari doctrine
** Imamate in Twelver doctrine
Imāmah ( ar, إِمَامَة) means "Islamic leadership, leadership" and is a concept in Theology of Twelvers, Twelver theology. The Twelve Imams are the spiritual and political successors to Muhammad, the Prophets in Islam, Prophet of Isla ...
* Intellectual proofs in Shia jurisprudence
Among the Islamic schools of thought, intellect as a source for deriving jurisprudential rulings is usually mentioned by Shia Islam, the others like the Sunni school of thought suggest Comparison, Discretion, and other speculative arguments.
...
* List of Shia books
A list of religious books of Shia Islam:
Books of Shia Imams
:#Mus'haf of Ali, Tafseer Quran by Imam Ali
:# Al-Jafr (book), Al-Jafr by Imam Ali
:# Nahj al-Balaghah, a collection of sermons, letters and quotes of Imam Ali
:# Ghurar al-Hikam wa Dur ...
* List of Shia Islamic dynasties
The following is a list of Shia Muslim dynasties.
North Africa and Europe
*Idrisid dynasty (788–985 CE) — (Morocco) - Zaidi
*Fatimid Caliphate (909–1171 CE) — (Kabylia) - Ismaili
* Banu Kanz (1004–1412 CE) - ( Upper Egypt) — Isma ...
* List of Shia Muslim scholars of Islam
Alive
* Emami, Mohammad (b. 1931)
* Khorasani, Hossein Vahid (b. 1921)
* Hamedani, Hossein Noori (b. 1925)
* Rohani, Sadeq (b. 1926)
* Jannati, Ahmad (b. 1927)
* Mousa Shubairi Zanjani (b. 1927)
* Naser Makarem Shirazi (b. 1927)
* al-Fa ...
* List of Shia Muslims
The following is a list of notable Shia Muslims.
Scientists, mathematicians and academics
*Ibn Sina or Avicenna- was a Persian polymathwho is regarded as one of the most significant physicians, astronomers, philosophers, and writers of t ...
* Shia clergy
In Shi'a Islam the guidance of clergy and keeping such a structure holds a great importance. The clergy structure depends on the branch of Shi'ism is being referred to.
Twelver
Usooli and Akhbari Shia Twelver Muslims believe that the study of ...
* Shia crescent
The Shia Crescent (or Shiite Crescent) is the notionally crescent-shaped region of the Middle East where the majority population is Shia or where there is a strong Shia minority in the population.
In recent years the term has come to identify are ...
* Shia genocide
The persecution of Shia Muslims by the Islamic State refers to the persecution of Shia Muslims by the Islamic extremist group Islamic State (IS), which took place in Iraq, Syria, and other areas across the world.
Despite being the religious maj ...
* Shia Islam in the Indian subcontinent
Shia Islam was brought to the Indian subcontinent during the final years of the Rashidun Caliphate. The Indian subcontinent also served as a refuge for some Shias escaping persecution from Umayyads, Abbasids, Ayyubids, and Ottomans. The immigra ...
* Shia nations
* Shia Rights Watch
Shia Rights Watch (SRW) is an organization that works to defend justice and rights for Shia Muslims around the world. It is the first of its kind, a non-governmental, not for profit, organization that bases research and advocacy from case studies a ...
* Shia view of Ali
Ali was the cousin and son-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and a member of the '' Ahl al-Bayt''. According to Shias, Ali was the first Imam who is believed to be the rightful successor to Muhammad, divinely appointed successors of ...
* Shia view of the Quran
The Shia view of the Qur'an differs from the Sunni view, but the majority of both groups believe that the text is identical. While some Shia disputed the canonical validity of the Uthmanic codex, the Shia Imams always rejected the idea of alterat ...
References
Notes
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* Shi'a Minorities in the Contemporary World: Migration, Transnationalism and Multilocality. United Kingdom, Edinburgh University Press, 2020.
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