Gods and demons fiction () is a subgenre of

fantasy Fantasy is a genre of speculative fiction involving Magic (supernatural), magical elements, typically set in a fictional universe and sometimes inspired by mythology and folklore. Its roots are in oral traditions, which then became fantasy ...

fiction that revolves around the deities, immortals, and monsters of

Chinese mythology Chinese mythology () is mythology that has been passed down in oral form or recorded in literature in the geographic area now known as Greater China. Chinese mythology includes many varied myths from regional and cultural traditions. Much of t ...

. The term ''shenmo xiaoshuo'', coined in the early 20th century by the writer and literary historian

Lu Xun Zhou Shuren (25 September 1881 – 19 October 1936), better known by his pen name Lu Xun (or Lu Sun; ; Wade–Giles: Lu Hsün), was a Chinese writer, essayist, poet, and literary critic. He was a leading figure of modern Chinese literature. W ...

, literally means "fiction of gods and demons". Works of shenmo fiction include the novels ''

Journey to the West ''Journey to the West'' () is a Chinese novel published in the 16th century during the Ming dynasty and attributed to Wu Cheng'en. It is regarded as one of the greatest Classic Chinese Novels, and has been described as arguably the most popu ...

'' and ''

Investiture of the Gods ''The Investiture of the Gods'', also known by its Chinese names () and is a 16th-century Chinese novel and one of the major vernacular Chinese works in the gods and demons (''shenmo'') genre written during the Ming dynasty (1368–1644). Cons ...

''.

History

''Shenmo'' first appeared in the

Ming Dynasty The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...

as a genre of vernacular fiction, a style of writing based on

spoken Chinese Chinese, also known as Sinitic, is a branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family consisting of hundreds of local varieties, many of which are not mutually intelligible. Variation is particularly strong in the more mountainous southeast of main ...

rather than

Classical Chinese Classical Chinese, also known as Literary Chinese (古文 ''gǔwén'' "ancient text", or 文言 ''wényán'' "text speak", meaning "literary language/speech"; modern vernacular: 文言文 ''wényánwén'' "text speak text", meaning "literar ...

. The roots of the genre are found in traditional folktales and legends. Plot elements like the use of magic and

alchemy Alchemy (from Arabic: ''al-kīmiyā''; from Ancient Greek: χυμεία, ''khumeía'') is an ancient branch of natural philosophy, a philosophical and protoscientific tradition that was historically practiced in China, India, the Muslim world, ...

were derived from Chinese mythology and religion, including

Taoism Taoism (, ) or Daoism () refers to either a school of Philosophy, philosophical thought (道家; ''daojia'') or to a religion (道教; ''daojiao''), both of which share ideas and concepts of China, Chinese origin and emphasize living in harmo ...

and

Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...

, popular among Ming intellectuals. ''

The Three Sui Quash the Demons' Revolt ''The Three Sui Quash the Demons' Revolt'' (; ) also translated as ''Quelling the Demons' Revolt'' and ''The Sorcerer's Revolt'' is a Chinese novel attributed to the 14th-century novelist Luo Guanzhong, although the earliest extant version was com ...

'' (, 14th century CE) is an early gods and demons novel attributed to

Luo Guanzhong Luo Ben (c. 1330–1400, or c.1280–1360), better known by his courtesy name Guanzhong (Mandarin pronunciation: ), was a Chinese writer who lived during the Ming dynasty. He was also known by his pseudonym Huhai Sanren (). Luo was attri ...

. In the story, Wang Ze begins a rebellion against the government with the aid of magic. The '' Four Journeys'' (, 16th century CE) is another early ''shenmo'' work composed of four novels and published during the dynasty as a compilation of folk stories. ''

The Story of Han Xiangzi ''The Story of Han Xiangzi'' () is a 17th-century Chinese novel written by (). It is written in vernacular Chinese. The protagonist is Han Xiangzi, one of the Eight Immortals. The novel was written with a clear Daoist Taoism (, ) or Daoism ...

'' (, 17th century CE), a

Daoist Taoism (, ) or Daoism () refers to either a school of philosophical thought (道家; ''daojia'') or to a religion (道教; ''daojiao''), both of which share ideas and concepts of Chinese origin and emphasize living in harmony with the ''Tao'' ...

novel from the same period, also shares this supernatural theme but contains heavier religious overtones. The most well known examples of ''shenmo'' fiction are ''

'' (, 16th century CE) and ''

'' (, 16th century CE). ''Journey to the West'' in particular is considered by Chinese literary critics as the ''chef-d'œuvre'' of ''shenmo'' novels. The novel's authorship is attributed to

Wu Cheng'en Wu Cheng'en (, c. 1500–1582Shi Changyu (1999). "Introduction." in trans. W.J.F. Jenner, ''Journey to the West'', volume 1. Seventh Edition. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press. pp. 1–22. or 1505–1580), courtesy name Ruzhong (), was a Chines ...

and was first published in 1592 by Shitedang, a Ming publishing house. The popularity of ''Journey to the West'' inspired a series of ''shenmo'' copycats that borrowed plot elements from the book.

Comic ''shenmo'' of the Ming and Qing dynasties

Later works of gods and demons fiction drifted away from the purely fantastical themes of novels like ''Journey to the West''. ''Shenmo'' novels were still ostensibly about monsters and gods, but carried more humanistic themes. During the late

and early

Qing Dynasty The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speak ...

, a subgenre of comedic ''shenmo'' had emerged. The grotesque exposés of the Qing dynasty (''qiangze xiaoshuo'') reference the supernatural motifs of ''shenmo xiaoshuo'', but in the Qing exposés, the division between the real and unreal is less clear cut. The supernatural is placed outside conventional fantasy settings and presented as a natural part of a realistic world, bringing about its grotesque nature. This trait is embodied in the ''Journey to the West'' and other ''shenmo'' parodies of the late Qing dynasty. In ''A Ridiculous Journey to the West'' (''Wuli qunao zhi xiyouji'') by

Wu Jianwen Wu may refer to: States and regions on modern China's territory *Wu (state) (; och, *, italic=yes, links=no), a kingdom during the Spring and Autumn Period 771–476 BCE ** Suzhou or Wu (), its eponymous capital ** Wu County (), a former county ...

, the protagonist Bare-Armed Gibbon, a more venal version of

Sun Wukong The Monkey King, also known as Sun Wukong ( zh, t=孫悟空, s=孙悟空, first=t) in Mandarin Chinese, is a legendary mythical figure best known as one of the main characters in the 16th-century Chinese novel ''Journey to the West'' ( zh, ...

, aids the Vulture King once he is unable to wring any money out of a penniless fish that the vulture had caught and dropped in a puddle. The monkey returns in another Wu Jianwen story, ''Long Live the Constitution'' (''Lixian wansui''), and bickers with other characters from ''Journey to the West'' over a constitution for Heaven. The four main characters of ''Journey to the West'', the monkey,

Tang Sanzang Tang Sanzang () is a central character in the 16th century novel ''Journey to the West'' by Wu Cheng'en. Tang Sanzang is based on the historical Buddhist monk Xuanzang. He is also widely known by his courtesy name, Tang Seng, () or Sanzang (). ...

Zhu Bajie Zhu Bajie (), also named Zhu Wuneng, is one of the three helpers of Tang Sanzang and a major character of the 16th century novel ''Journey to the West''. Zhu means " swine" and Bajie means " eight precepts". Buddhist scholars consider that both e ...

, and

Sha Wujing Sha Wujing () is one of the three disciples of the Buddhist pilgrim Tang Sanzang in the 16th century novel ''Journey to the West'' written by Wu Cheng'en in the Ming dynasty, although versions of his character predate the Ming novel. In the sour ...

, travel to modern Shanghai in the ''New Journey to the West'' (''Xin xiyouji'') by Lengxue. In Shanghai, they mingle with prostitutes, suffer from drug addiction, and play games of

mahjong Mahjong or mah-jongg (English pronunciation: ) is a tile-based game that was developed in the 19th century in China and has spread throughout the world since the early 20th century. It is commonly played by four players (with some three-play ...

. ''Journey to the West'' was not the only gods and demons novel lampooned. ''New Investiture of the Gods'' (''Xin Fengshenzhuan'') is a parody of ''Investiture of the Gods'' by Dalu that was published as a ''guji xiaoshuo'' comedy. Novels in this subgenre include an expanded revision of ''The Sorcerer's Revolt'', ''What Sort of Book Is This?'' (''Hedian''), ''Romance of Devil Killing'' (''Zhanggui zhuan''), and ''Quelling the Demons'' (''Pinggui zhuan''). Instead of focusing only on a supernatural realm, ''shenmo'' comedies used fantasy as a social commentary on the follies of the human world. Lu Xun theorized that the ''shenmo'' genre shaped the satirical works later written in the

. The genre also influenced the science fantasy novels of the late Qing.

20th century

''Shenmo'' literature declined in the early 20th century. The generation of writers following the

May Fourth Movement The May Fourth Movement was a Chinese anti-imperialist, cultural, and political movement which grew out of student protests in Beijing on May 4, 1919. Students gathered in front of Tiananmen (The Gate of Heavenly Peace) to protest the Chinese ...

rejected fantasy in favor of

literary realism Literary realism is a literary genre, part of the broader realism in arts, that attempts to represent subject-matter truthfully, avoiding speculative fiction and supernatural elements. It originated with the realist art movement that began with ...

influenced by the trends of 19th-century European literature. Chinese writers regarded fantasy genres like ''shenmo'' as superstitious and a product of a feudal society. Stories of gods and monsters were seen as an obstacle to the modernization of China and scientific progress. The writer

Hu Shih Hu Shih (; 17 December 1891 – 24 February 1962), also known as Hu Suh in early references, was a Chinese diplomat, essayist, literary scholar, philosopher, and politician. Hu is widely recognized today as a key contributor to Chinese libera ...

wrote that the spells and magical creatures of Chinese fiction were more harmful to the Chinese people than the germs discovered by

Louis Pasteur Louis Pasteur (, ; 27 December 1822 – 28 September 1895) was a French chemist and microbiologist renowned for his discoveries of the principles of vaccination, microbial fermentation and pasteurization, the latter of which was named afte ...

. Stories of the supernatural were denounced during the

Cultural Revolution The Cultural Revolution, formally known as the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, was a sociopolitical movement in the People's Republic of China (PRC) launched by Mao Zedong in 1966, and lasting until his death in 1976. Its stated goal ...

, an era when " Down with ox-ghosts and snake-spirits" was a popular Communist slogan. ''Shenmo'' and other fantasy genres experienced a revival in

Taiwan Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia, at the junction of the East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, with the People's Republic of China (PRC) to the northwest, Japan to the nort ...

, Hong Kong, and, later, in

Mainland China "Mainland China" is a geopolitical term defined as the territory governed by the People's Republic of China (including islands like Hainan or Chongming), excluding dependent territories of the PRC, and other territories within Greater China. ...

after the Cultural Revolution ended. Having returned to Chinese popular culture, fantasy has populated film, television, radio, and literature. Contemporary writers frequently use supernatural themes to accentuate the otherworldly atmosphere of their works.

Etymology

The term ''shenmo xiaoshuo'' was coined by the writer and literary historian

in his book '' A Brief History of Chinese Fiction'' (1930), which has three chapters on the genre. The literary historian Mei Chun translates Lu Xun's term as "supernatural/fantastic". The term was adopted as a convention by the generations of Chinese literary critics that followed him. In their 1959 translation of Lu Xun's book, Gladys Yang and Yang Xianyi translate ''shenmo '' as "Gods and Devils". Lin Chin, a historian of Chinese literature, categorized the fantasy novels of the Ming dynasty as ''shenguai xiaoshuo'', "novels of gods and strange phenomenon".

Notes

References