![Ring12](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Ring12.jpg)
In
mythology
Myth is a folklore genre consisting of narratives that play a fundamental role in a society, such as foundational tales or origin myths. Since "myth" is widely used to imply that a story is not objectively true, the identification of a narrat ...
,
folklore
Folklore is shared by a particular group of people; it encompasses the traditions common to that culture, subculture or group. This includes oral traditions such as tales, legends, proverbs and jokes. They include material culture, ranging ...
and
speculative fiction
Speculative fiction is a term that has been used with a variety of (sometimes contradictory) meanings. The broadest interpretation is as a category of fiction encompassing genres with elements that do not exist in reality, recorded history, na ...
, shape-shifting is the
ability
Abilities are powers an agent has to perform various actions. They include common abilities, like walking, and rare abilities, like performing a double backflip. Abilities are intelligent powers: they are guided by the person's intention and exec ...
to physically transform oneself through an inherently
superhuman
The term superhuman refers to humans or human-like beings with enhanced qualities and abilities that exceed those naturally found in humans. These qualities may be acquired through natural ability, self-actualization or technological aids. Th ...
ability, divine intervention,
demon
A demon is a malevolent supernatural entity. Historically, belief in demons, or stories about demons, occurs in religion, occultism, literature, fiction, mythology, and folklore; as well as in media such as comics, video games, movies, ani ...
ic manipulation,
sorcery
Sorcery may refer to:
* Magic (supernatural), the application of beliefs, rituals or actions employed to subdue or manipulate natural or supernatural beings and forces
** Witchcraft, the practice of magical skills and abilities
* Magic in fiction, ...
,
spells or having inherited the ability. The idea of shape-shifting is in the oldest forms of
totem
A totem (from oj, ᑑᑌᒼ, italics=no or ''doodem'') is a spirit being, sacred object, or symbol that serves as an emblem of a group of people, such as a family, clan, lineage, or tribe, such as in the Anishinaabe clan system.
While ''the wo ...
ism and
shamanism
Shamanism is a religious practice that involves a practitioner (shaman) interacting with what they believe to be a Spirit world (Spiritualism), spirit world through Altered state of consciousness, altered states of consciousness, such as tranc ...
, as well as the oldest existent literature and
epic poems
An epic poem, or simply an epic, is a lengthy narrative poem typically about the extraordinary deeds of extraordinary characters who, in dealings with gods or other superhuman forces, gave shape to the mortal universe for their descendants.
...
such as the ''
Epic of Gilgamesh
The ''Epic of Gilgamesh'' () is an epic poetry, epic poem from ancient Mesopotamia, and is regarded as the earliest surviving notable literature and the second oldest religious text, after the Pyramid Texts. The literary history of Gilgamesh ...
'' and the ''
Iliad
The ''Iliad'' (; grc, Ἰλιάς, Iliás, ; "a poem about Ilium") is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is one of the oldest extant works of literature still widely read by modern audiences. As with the ''Odysse ...
''. The concept remains a common literary device in modern
fantasy
Fantasy is a genre of speculative fiction involving Magic (supernatural), magical elements, typically set in a fictional universe and sometimes inspired by mythology and folklore. Its roots are in oral traditions, which then became fantasy ...
,
children's literature
Children's literature or juvenile literature includes stories, books, magazines, and poems that are created for children. Modern children's literature is classified in two different ways: genre or the intended age of the reader.
Children's ...
and
popular culture
Popular culture (also called mass culture or pop culture) is generally recognized by members of a society as a set of practices, beliefs, artistic output (also known as, popular art or mass art) and objects that are dominant or prevalent in a ...
.
Folklore and mythology
![GermanWoodcut1722](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/GermanWoodcut1722.jpg)
Popular shape-shifting creatures in folklore are
werewolves
In folklore, a werewolf (), or occasionally lycanthrope (; ; uk, Вовкулака, Vovkulaka), is an individual that can shapeshift into a wolf (or, especially in modern film, a therianthropic hybrid wolf-like creature), either purposely or ...
and
vampire
A vampire is a mythical creature that subsists by feeding on the Vitalism, vital essence (generally in the form of blood) of the living. In European folklore, vampires are undead, undead creatures that often visited loved ones and caused mi ...
s (mostly of
Europe
Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a Continent#Subcontinents, subcontinent of Eurasia ...
an,
Canadian
Canadians (french: Canadiens) are people identified with the country of Canada. This connection may be residential, legal, historical or cultural. For most Canadians, many (or all) of these connections exist and are collectively the source of ...
, and
Native American/early American origin),
ichchadhari naag and ichchadhari naagin (shape-shifting cobras) of
India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
, the
huli jing
Huli jing () are Chinese mythological creatures usually capable of shapeshifting, who may either be benevolent or malevolent spirits. In Chinese mythology and folklore, the fox spirit takes variant forms with different meanings, powers, charac ...
of
East Asia
East Asia is the eastern region of Asia, which is defined in both geographical and ethno-cultural terms. The modern states of East Asia include China, Japan, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, and Taiwan. China, North Korea, South Korea and ...
(including the
Japanese
Japanese may refer to:
* Something from or related to Japan, an island country in East Asia
* Japanese language, spoken mainly in Japan
* Japanese people, the ethnic group that identifies with Japan through ancestry or culture
** Japanese diaspor ...
''
kitsune
In Japanese folklore, , are foxes that possess paranormal abilities that increase as they get older and wiser. According to ''yōkai'' folklore, all foxes have the ability to shapeshift into human form. While some folktales speak of employing t ...
'' and
Korean
Korean may refer to:
People and culture
* Koreans, ethnic group originating in the Korean Peninsula
* Korean cuisine
* Korean culture
* Korean language
**Korean alphabet, known as Hangul or Chosŏn'gŭl
**Korean dialects and the Jeju language
** ...
''
kumiho
A kumiho or gumiho (, literally "nine-tailed fox") is a creature that appears in the folktales on East Asia and legends of Korea. It is similar to the Chinese and the Japanese . It can freely transform, among other things, into a beautiful woman ...
''), and the gods,
goddess
A goddess is a female deity. In many known cultures, goddesses are often linked with literal or metaphorical pregnancy or imagined feminine roles associated with how women and girls are perceived or expected to behave. This includes themes of s ...
es, and
demon
A demon is a malevolent supernatural entity. Historically, belief in demons, or stories about demons, occurs in religion, occultism, literature, fiction, mythology, and folklore; as well as in media such as comics, video games, movies, ani ...
s and demonesses like
succubus
A succubus is a demon or supernatural entity in folklore, in female form, that appears in dreams to seduce men, usually through sexual activity. According to religious tradition, a succubus needs male semen to survive; repeated sexual activity ...
and
incubus
An incubus is a demon in male form in folklore that seeks to have sexual intercourse with sleeping women; the corresponding spirit in female form is called a succubus. In medieval Europe, union with an incubus was supposed by some to result in t ...
and other numerous mythologies, such as the
Norse Loki
Loki is a god in Norse mythology. According to some sources, Loki is the son of Fárbauti (a jötunn) and Laufey (mentioned as a goddess), and the brother of Helblindi and Býleistr. Loki is married to Sigyn and they have two sons, Narfi or Na ...
or the
Greek
Greek may refer to:
Greece
Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe:
*Greeks, an ethnic group.
*Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family.
**Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...
Proteus
In Greek mythology, Proteus (; Ancient Greek: Πρωτεύς, ''Prōteus'') is an early prophetic sea-god or god of rivers and oceanic bodies of water, one of several deities whom Homer calls the "Old Man of the Sea" ''(hálios gérôn)''. ...
. Shape-shifting to the form of a
gray wolf
The wolf (''Canis lupus''; : wolves), also known as the gray wolf or grey wolf, is a large canine native to Eurasia and North America. More than thirty subspecies of ''Canis lupus'' have been recognized, and gray wolves, as popularly ...
is specifically known as
lycanthropy
In folklore, a werewolf (), or occasionally lycanthrope (; ; uk, Вовкулака, Vovkulaka), is an individual that can shapeshift into a wolf (or, especially in modern film, a therianthropic hybrid wolf-like creature), either purposely or ...
, and such creatures who undergo such change are called lycanthropes.
Therianthropy
Therianthropy is the mythological ability of human beings to metamorphose into animals or hybrids by means of shapeshifting. It is possible that cave drawings found at Les Trois Frères, in France, depict ancient beliefs in the concept.
The b ...
is the more general term for human-animal shifts, but it is rarely used in that capacity. It was also common for
deities
A deity or god is a supernatural being who is considered divine or sacred. The ''Oxford Dictionary of English'' defines deity as a god or goddess, or anything revered as divine. C. Scott Littleton defines a deity as "a being with powers greate ...
to transform mortals into animals and
plant
Plants are predominantly photosynthetic eukaryotes of the kingdom Plantae. Historically, the plant kingdom encompassed all living things that were not animals, and included algae and fungi; however, all current definitions of Plantae exclud ...
s.
Other terms for shapeshifters include metamorph, the Navajo
skin-walker
In Navajo culture, a skin-walker ( nv, yee naaldlooshii) is a type of harmful witch who has the ability to turn into, possess, or disguise themselves as an animal. The term is never used for healers.
Background
In the Navajo language, ' transl ...
, mimic, and therianthrope. The prefix "were-", coming from the Old English word for "man" (masculine rather than generic), is also used to designate shapeshifters; despite its root, it is used to indicate female shapeshifters as well.
While the popular idea of a shapeshifter is of a human being who turns into something else, there are numerous stories about animals that can transform themselves as well.
Greco-Roman
![Gerbrand van den Eeckhout 005](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Gerbrand_van_den_Eeckhout_005.jpg)
Examples of shape-shifting in
classical literature
Classics or classical studies is the study of classical antiquity. In the Western world, classics traditionally refers to the study of Classical Greek and Roman literature and their related original languages, Ancient Greek and Latin. Classics ...
include many examples in
Ovid
Pūblius Ovidius Nāsō (; 20 March 43 BC – 17/18 AD), known in English as Ovid ( ), was a Roman poet who lived during the reign of Augustus. He was a contemporary of the older Virgil and Horace, with whom he is often ranked as one of the th ...
's ''
Metamorphoses
The ''Metamorphoses'' ( la, Metamorphōsēs, from grc, μεταμορφώσεις: "Transformations") is a Latin narrative poem from 8 CE by the Roman poet Ovid. It is considered his ''magnum opus''. The poem chronicles the history of the wo ...
'',
Circe
Circe (; grc, , ) is an Magician (paranormal), enchantress and a minor goddess in ancient Greek mythology and Ancient Greek religion, religion. She is either a daughter of the Titans, Titan Helios and the Oceanid nymph Perse (mythology), Perse ...
's transforming of
Odysseus
Odysseus ( ; grc-gre, Ὀδυσσεύς, Ὀδυσεύς, OdysseúsOdyseús, ), also known by the Latin variant Ulysses ( , ; lat, UlyssesUlixes), is a legendary Greek king of Ithaca and the hero of Homer's epic poem the ''Odyssey''. Odysse ...
' men to pigs in
Homer
Homer (; grc, Ὅμηρος , ''Hómēros'') (born ) was a Greek poet who is credited as the author of the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'', two epic poems that are foundational works of ancient Greek literature. Homer is considered one of the ...
's ''
The Odyssey
The ''Odyssey'' (; grc, Ὀδύσσεια, Odýsseia, ) is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is one of the oldest extant works of literature still widely read by modern audiences. As with the ''Iliad'', the ...
'', and
Apuleius
Apuleius (; also called Lucius Apuleius Madaurensis; c. 124 – after 170) was a Numidian Latin-language prose writer, Platonist philosopher and rhetorician. He lived in the Roman province of Numidia, in the Berber city of Madauros, modern-day ...
's Lucius becoming a donkey in ''
The Golden Ass
The ''Metamorphoses'' of Apuleius, which Augustine of Hippo referred to as ''The Golden Ass'' (''Asinus aureus''), is the only ancient Roman novel in Latin to survive in its entirety.
The protagonist of the novel is Lucius. At the end of the no ...
''.
Proteus
In Greek mythology, Proteus (; Ancient Greek: Πρωτεύς, ''Prōteus'') is an early prophetic sea-god or god of rivers and oceanic bodies of water, one of several deities whom Homer calls the "Old Man of the Sea" ''(hálios gérôn)''. ...
was noted among the gods for his shape-shifting; both
Menelaus
In Greek mythology, Menelaus (; grc-gre, Μενέλαος , 'wrath of the people', ) was a king of Mycenaean (pre- Dorian) Sparta. According to the ''Iliad'', Menelaus was a central figure in the Trojan War, leading the Spartan contingent of th ...
and
Aristaeus
A minor god in Greek mythology, attested mainly by Athenian writers, Aristaeus (; ''Aristaios'' (Aristaîos); lit. “Most Excellent, Most Useful”), was the culture hero credited with the discovery of many useful arts, including bee-keeping; ...
seized him to win information from him, and succeeded only because they held on during his various changes.
Nereus
In Greek mythology, Nereus ( ; ) was the eldest son of Pontus (the Sea) and Gaia (the Earth), with Pontus himself being a son of Gaia. Nereus and Doris became the parents of 50 daughters (the Nereids) and a son ( Nerites), with whom Nereus liv ...
told
Heracles
Heracles ( ; grc-gre, Ἡρακλῆς, , glory/fame of Hera), born Alcaeus (, ''Alkaios'') or Alcides (, ''Alkeidēs''), was a divine hero in Greek mythology, the son of Zeus and Alcmene, and the foster son of Amphitryon.By his adoptive ...
where to find the Apples of the
Hesperides
In Greek mythology, the Hesperides (; , ) are the nymphs of evening and golden light of sunsets, who were the "Daughters of the Evening" or "Nymphs of the West". They were also called the Atlantides () from their reputed father, the Titan Atlas ...
for the same reason.
The
Oceanid
In Greek mythology, the Oceanids or Oceanides (; grc, Ὠκεανίδες, Ōkeanídes, pl. of grc, Ὠκεανίς, Ōkeanís, label=none) are the nymphs who were the three thousand (a number interpreted as meaning "innumerable") daughters o ...
Metis
Metis or Métis may refer to:
Ethnic groups
* Métis, recognized Indigenous communities in Canada and America whose distinct culture and language emerged after early intermarriage between First Nations peoples and early European settlers, primar ...
, the first wife of Zeus and the mother of the goddess Athena, was believed to be able to change her appearance into anything she wanted. In one story, she was so proud, that her husband, Zeus, tricked her into changing into a fly. He then swallowed her because he feared that he and Metis would have a son who would be more powerful than Zeus himself. Metis, however, was already pregnant. She stayed alive inside his head and built armor for her daughter. The banging of her metalworking made Zeus have a headache, so Hephaestus clove his head with an axe. Athena sprang from her father's head, fully grown, and in battle armor.
![Ler swans Millar](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Ler_swans_Millar.jpg)
In
Greek mythology
A major branch of classical mythology, Greek mythology is the body of myths originally told by the Ancient Greece, ancient Greeks, and a genre of Ancient Greek folklore. These stories concern the Cosmogony, origin and Cosmology#Metaphysical co ...
, the transformation is often a punishment from the gods to humans who crossed them.
*
Zeus
Zeus or , , ; grc, Δῐός, ''Diós'', label=Genitive case, genitive Aeolic Greek, Boeotian Aeolic and Doric Greek#Laconian, Laconian grc-dor, Δεύς, Deús ; grc, Δέος, ''Déos'', label=Genitive case, genitive el, Δίας, ''D ...
transformed King
Lycaon and his children into wolves (hence lycanthropy) as a punishment for either killing Zeus' children or serving him the flesh of Lycaon's own murdered son
Nyctimus :''Nyctimus (spider), Nyctimus'' is also a spider genus (Thomisidae)
In Greek mythology, Nyctimus (Ancient Greek: Νύκτιμος ''Nyktimos'') was an Arcadia (region), Arcadian prince and the youngest of the 50 sons of the impious King Lycaon (ki ...
, depending on the exact version of the myth.
*
Ares
Ares (; grc, Ἄρης, ''Árēs'' ) is the Greek god of war and courage. He is one of the Twelve Olympians, and the son of Zeus and Hera. The Greeks were ambivalent towards him. He embodies the physical valor necessary for success in war b ...
assigned
Alectryon to keep watch for
Helios
In ancient Greek religion and Greek mythology, mythology, Helios (; grc, , , Sun; Homeric Greek: ) is the deity, god and personification of the Sun (Solar deity). His name is also Latinized as Helius, and he is often given the epithets Hyper ...
the sun god during his affair with
Aphrodite
Aphrodite ( ; grc-gre, Ἀφροδίτη, Aphrodítē; , , ) is an ancient Greek goddess associated with love, lust, beauty, pleasure, passion, and procreation. She was syncretized with the Roman goddess . Aphrodite's major symbols include ...
, but Alectryon fell asleep, leading to their discovery and humiliation that morning. Ares turned Alectryon into a
rooster
The chicken (''Gallus gallus domesticus'') is a domesticated junglefowl species, with attributes of wild species such as the grey and the Ceylon junglefowl that are originally from Southeastern Asia. Rooster or cock is a term for an adult m ...
, which always crows to signal the morning and the arrival of the sun.
*
Demeter
In ancient Greek religion and mythology, Demeter (; Attic: ''Dēmḗtēr'' ; Doric: ''Dāmā́tēr'') is the Olympian goddess of the harvest and agriculture, presiding over crops, grains, food, and the fertility of the earth. Although s ...
transformed
Ascalabus
Ascalabus (Ancient Greek: Ἀσκάλαβος), in Greek mythology, was a son of Misme.
Mythology
When Demeter, on her wanderings in search of her daughter Persephone who had been abducted by Hades, came to Misme in Attica, the goddess was rece ...
into a lizard for mocking her sorrow and thirst during her search for her daughter
Persephone
In ancient Greek mythology and religion, Persephone ( ; gr, Περσεφόνη, Persephónē), also called Kore or Cora ( ; gr, Κόρη, Kórē, the maiden), is the daughter of Zeus and Demeter. She became the queen of the underworld after ...
. She also turned King
Lyncus In Greek mythology, King Lyncus ( Greek: , ) of the Scythians was taught the arts of agriculture by Triptolemus but he refused to teach it to his people and then tried to kill Triptolemus. Demeter turned him into a lynx as punishment.Hyginus, ''Fab ...
into a
lynx
A lynx is a type of wild cat.
Lynx may also refer to:
Astronomy
* Lynx (constellation)
* Lynx (Chinese astronomy)
* Lynx X-ray Observatory, a NASA-funded mission concept for a next-generation X-ray space observatory
Places Canada
* Lynx, Ontar ...
for trying to murder her prophet
Triptolemus
In Greek mythology, Triptolemus ( el, Τριπτόλεμος, ''Triptólemos'', lit. "threefold warrior"; also known as Buzyges) is a figure connected with the goddess Demeter of the Eleusinian Mysteries. He was either a mortal prince, the el ...
.
*
Athena
Athena or Athene, often given the epithet Pallas, is an ancient Greek goddess associated with wisdom, warfare, and handicraft who was later syncretized with the Roman goddess Minerva. Athena was regarded as the patron and protectress of ...
transformed
Arachne
Arachne (; from , cognate with Latin ) is the protagonist of a tale in Greek mythology known primarily from the version told by the Roman poet Ovid (43 BCE–17 CE), which is the earliest extant source for the story. In Book Six of his ...
into a spider for challenging her as a weaver and/or weaving a tapestry that insulted the gods. She also turned
Nyctimene into an owl, though in this case it was an act of mercy, as the girl wished to hide from the daylight out of shame from being raped by her father.
*
Artemis
In ancient Greek mythology and religion, Artemis (; grc-gre, Ἄρτεμις) is the goddess of the hunt, the wilderness, wild animals, nature, vegetation, childbirth, care of children, and chastity. She was heavily identified wit ...
transformed
Actaeon
Actaeon (; grc, Ἀκταίων ''Aktaion''), in Greek mythology, son of the priestly herdsman Aristaeus and Autonoe in Boeotia, was a famous Theban hero. Like Achilles in a later generation, he was trained by the centaur Chiron.
He fell to ...
into a stag for spying on her bathing, and he was later devoured by his own hunting dogs.
*
Galanthis
In Greek mythology, Galanthis or Galinthias was the woman who interfered with Hera's plan to hinder the birth of Heracles in favor of Eurystheus, and was changed into a weasel or cat as punishment for being so insolent as to deceive the goddesse ...
was transformed into a
weasel
Weasels are mammals of the genus ''Mustela'' of the family Mustelidae. The genus ''Mustela'' includes the least weasels, polecats, stoats, ferrets and European mink. Members of this genus are small, active predators, with long and slender bo ...
or
cat
The cat (''Felis catus'') is a domestic species of small carnivorous mammal. It is the only domesticated species in the family Felidae and is commonly referred to as the domestic cat or house cat to distinguish it from the wild members of ...
after interfering in
Hera
In ancient Greek religion, Hera (; grc-gre, Ἥρα, Hḗrā; grc, Ἥρη, Hḗrē, label=none in Ionic and Homeric Greek) is the goddess of marriage, women and family, and the protector of women during childbirth. In Greek mythology, she ...
's plans to hinder the birth of
Heracles
Heracles ( ; grc-gre, Ἡρακλῆς, , glory/fame of Hera), born Alcaeus (, ''Alkaios'') or Alcides (, ''Alkeidēs''), was a divine hero in Greek mythology, the son of Zeus and Alcmene, and the foster son of Amphitryon.By his adoptive ...
.
*
Atalanta
Atalanta (; grc-gre, Ἀταλάντη, Atalantē) meaning "equal in weight", is a heroine in Greek mythology.
There are two versions of the huntress Atalanta: one from Arcadia, whose parents were Iasus and Clymene and who is primarily known ...
and
Hippomenes
:''The name Hippomenes may also refer to the father of Leimone.''
In Greek mythology, Hippomenes (; grc, Ἱππομένης), also known as Melanion (; Μελανίων or Μειλανίων), was a son of the Arcadian AmphidamasApollodorus, 3. ...
were turned into lions after making love in a temple dedicated to Zeus or
Cybele
Cybele ( ; Phrygian: ''Matar Kubileya/Kubeleya'' "Kubileya/Kubeleya Mother", perhaps "Mountain Mother"; Lydian ''Kuvava''; el, Κυβέλη ''Kybele'', ''Kybebe'', ''Kybelis'') is an Anatolian mother goddess; she may have a possible forer ...
.
*
Io was a priestess of
Hera
In ancient Greek religion, Hera (; grc-gre, Ἥρα, Hḗrā; grc, Ἥρη, Hḗrē, label=none in Ionic and Homeric Greek) is the goddess of marriage, women and family, and the protector of women during childbirth. In Greek mythology, she ...
in
Argos
Argos most often refers to:
* Argos, Peloponnese, a city in Argolis, Greece
** Ancient Argos, the ancient city
* Argos (retailer), a catalogue retailer operating in the United Kingdom and Ireland
Argos or ARGOS may also refer to:
Businesses
...
, a nymph who was raped by Zeus, who changed her into a
heifer
Heifer may refer to:
* Heifer (cow), a young cow before she has had her first calf
* Frank Heifer (1854–1893), American outfielder and first baseman
* '' The Heifer'' (''La vaquilla''), 1985 Spanish comedy film
* Heifer International
Heifer ...
to escape detection.
* Hera punished young
Tiresias
In Greek mythology, Tiresias (; grc, Τειρεσίας, Teiresías) was a blind prophet of Apollo in Thebes, famous for clairvoyance and for being transformed into a woman for seven years. He was the son of the shepherd Everes and the nymph ...
by transforming him into a woman and, seven years later, back into a man.
* King
Tereus
In Greek mythology, Tereus (; Ancient Greek: Τηρεύς) was a Thracian king,Thucydides: ''History of the Peloponnesian War'' 2:29 the son of Ares and the naiad Bistonis. He was the brother of Dryas. Tereus was the husband of the Athenian prin ...
, his wife
Procne
Procne (; grc, Πρόκνη, ''Próknē'' ) is a minor figure in Greek mythology. She was an Athens, Athenian princess as the elder daughter of a king of Athens named Pandion I, Pandion.
Family
Procne's mother was the naiad Zeuxippe and he ...
and her sister
Philomela
Philomela () or Philomel (; grc-gre, , ; ) is a minor figure in Greek mythology who is frequently invoked as a direct and figurative symbol in literary and artistic works in the Western canon.
Family
Philomela was the younger of two daugh ...
were all turned into birds (a
hoopoe
Hoopoes () are colourful birds found across Africa, Asia, and Europe, notable for their distinctive "crown" of feathers. Three living and one extinct species are recognized, though for many years all of the extant species were lumped as a single ...
, a
swallow
The swallows, martins, and saw-wings, or Hirundinidae, are a family of passerine songbirds found around the world on all continents, including occasionally in Antarctica. Highly adapted to aerial feeding, they have a distinctive appearance. The ...
and a
nightingale
The common nightingale, rufous nightingale or simply nightingale (''Luscinia megarhynchos''), is a small passerine bird best known for its powerful and beautiful song. It was formerly classed as a member of the thrush family Turdidae, but is no ...
respectively), after Tereus raped Philomela and cut out her tongue, and in revenge she and Procne served him the flesh of his murdered son
Itys
In Greek mythology, Itys ( grc, Ἴτυς, Itus) is a minor mythological character, the son of Tereus, a king of Thrace, by his Athenian wife Procne. Itys was murdered by his own mother and served to be consumed during dinner by his father, as p ...
(who in some variants is resurrected as a
goldfinch).
*
Callisto Callisto most commonly refers to:
*Callisto (mythology), a nymph
*Callisto (moon), a moon of Jupiter
Callisto may also refer to:
Art and entertainment
*''Callisto series'', a sequence of novels by Lin Carter
*''Callisto'', a novel by Torsten Kro ...
was turned into a bear by either
Artemis
In ancient Greek mythology and religion, Artemis (; grc-gre, Ἄρτεμις) is the goddess of the hunt, the wilderness, wild animals, nature, vegetation, childbirth, care of children, and chastity. She was heavily identified wit ...
or
Hera
In ancient Greek religion, Hera (; grc-gre, Ἥρα, Hḗrā; grc, Ἥρη, Hḗrē, label=none in Ionic and Homeric Greek) is the goddess of marriage, women and family, and the protector of women during childbirth. In Greek mythology, she ...
for being impregnated by Zeus.
*
Selene
In ancient Greek mythology and religion, Selene (; grc-gre, Σελήνη , meaning "Moon"''A Greek–English Lexicon's.v. σελήνη) is the goddess and the personification of the Moon. Also known as Mene, she is traditionally the daughter o ...
transformed
Myia
Myia (; grc-gre, Μυῖα, literally "Fly"; fl. c. 500 BC) was a Pythagorean philosopher and, according to later tradition, one of the daughters of Theano and Pythagoras.
Life
Myia was married to Milo of Croton, the famous athlete. She was a c ...
into a fly when she became a rival for the love of
Endymion Endymion primarily refers to:
* Endymion (mythology), an Ancient Greek shepherd
* ''Endymion'' (poem), by John Keats
Endymion may also refer to:
Fictional characters
* Prince Endymion, a character in the ''Sailor Moon'' anime franchise
* Raul ...
.
While the Greek gods could use transformation punitively – such as
Medusa
In Greek mythology, Medusa (; Ancient Greek: Μέδουσα "guardian, protectress"), also called Gorgo, was one of the three monstrous Gorgons, generally described as winged human females with living venomous snakes in place of hair. Those ...
, turned to a monster for having sexual intercourse (
rape
Rape is a type of sexual assault usually involving sexual intercourse or other forms of sexual penetration carried out against a person without their consent. The act may be carried out by physical force, coercion, abuse of authority, or ag ...
d in Ovid's version) with
Poseidon
Poseidon (; grc-gre, Ποσειδῶν) was one of the Twelve Olympians in ancient Greek religion and myth, god of the sea, storms, earthquakes and horses.Burkert 1985pp. 136–139 In pre-Olympian Bronze Age Greece, he was venerated as a ch ...
in
Athena
Athena or Athene, often given the epithet Pallas, is an ancient Greek goddess associated with wisdom, warfare, and handicraft who was later syncretized with the Roman goddess Minerva. Athena was regarded as the patron and protectress of ...
's temple – even more frequently, the tales using it are of amorous adventure. Zeus repeatedly transformed himself to approach mortals as a means of gaining access:
*
Danaë
In Greek mythology, Danaë (, ; ; , ) was an Argive princess and mother of the hero Perseus by Zeus. She was credited with founding the city of Ardea in Latium during the Bronze Age.
Family
Danae was the daughter and only child of King Acris ...
as a shower of gold
*
Europa
Europa may refer to:
Places
* Europe
* Europa (Roman province), a province within the Diocese of Thrace
* Europa (Seville Metro), Seville, Spain; a station on the Seville Metro
* Europa City, Paris, France; a planned development
* Europa Cliff ...
as a bull
*
Leda
Leda may refer to:
Mythology
* Leda (mythology), queen of Sparta and mother of Helen of Troy in Greek mythology
Places
* Leda, Western Australia, a suburb of Perth, Western Australia
* Leda makeshift settlement, Bangladesh, a refugee camp ...
as a
swan
Swans are birds of the family (biology), family Anatidae within the genus ''Cygnus''. The swans' closest relatives include the goose, geese and ducks. Swans are grouped with the closely related geese in the subfamily Anserinae where they form t ...
*
Ganymede, as an
eagle
Eagle is the common name for many large birds of prey of the family Accipitridae. Eagles belong to several groups of genera, some of which are closely related. Most of the 68 species of eagle are from Eurasia and Africa. Outside this area, just ...
*
Alcmene
In Greek mythology, Alcmene () or Alcmena (; Ancient Greek: Ἀλκμήνη or Doric Greek: Ἀλκμάνα, Latin: Alcumena means "strong in wrath") was the wife of Amphitryon by whom she bore two children, Iphicles and Laonome. She is best known ...
as her husband
Amphitryon
Amphitryon (; Ancient Greek: Ἀμφιτρύων, ''gen''.: Ἀμφιτρύωνος; usually interpreted as "harassing either side", Latin: Amphitruo), in Greek mythology, was a son of Alcaeus, king of Tiryns in Argolis. His mother was named ei ...
*
Hera
In ancient Greek religion, Hera (; grc-gre, Ἥρα, Hḗrā; grc, Ἥρη, Hḗrē, label=none in Ionic and Homeric Greek) is the goddess of marriage, women and family, and the protector of women during childbirth. In Greek mythology, she ...
as a
cuckoo
Cuckoos are birds in the Cuculidae family, the sole taxon in the order Cuculiformes . The cuckoo family includes the common or European cuckoo, roadrunners, koels, malkohas, couas, coucals and anis. The coucals and anis are sometimes separ ...
*
Aegina
Aegina (; el, Αίγινα, ''Aígina'' ; grc, Αἴγῑνα) is one of the Saronic Islands of Greece in the Saronic Gulf, from Athens. Tradition derives the name from Aegina (mythology), Aegina, the mother of the hero Aeacus, who was born ...
as an eagle or a flame
*
Persephone
In ancient Greek mythology and religion, Persephone ( ; gr, Περσεφόνη, Persephónē), also called Kore or Cora ( ; gr, Κόρη, Kórē, the maiden), is the daughter of Zeus and Demeter. She became the queen of the underworld after ...
as a serpent
*
Io, as a cloud
*
Callisto Callisto most commonly refers to:
*Callisto (mythology), a nymph
*Callisto (moon), a moon of Jupiter
Callisto may also refer to:
Art and entertainment
*''Callisto series'', a sequence of novels by Lin Carter
*''Callisto'', a novel by Torsten Kro ...
as either Artemis or
Apollo
Apollo, grc, Ἀπόλλωνος, Apóllōnos, label=genitive , ; , grc-dor, Ἀπέλλων, Apéllōn, ; grc, Ἀπείλων, Apeílōn, label=Arcadocypriot Greek, ; grc-aeo, Ἄπλουν, Áploun, la, Apollō, la, Apollinis, label= ...
*
Nemesis
In ancient Greek religion, Nemesis, also called Rhamnousia or Rhamnusia ( grc, Ῥαμνουσία, Rhamnousía, the goddess of Rhamnous), was the goddess who personifies retribution, a central concept in the Greek world view.
Etymology
The n ...
(Goddess of retribution) transformed into a goose to escape
Zeus
Zeus or , , ; grc, Δῐός, ''Diós'', label=Genitive case, genitive Aeolic Greek, Boeotian Aeolic and Doric Greek#Laconian, Laconian grc-dor, Δεύς, Deús ; grc, Δέος, ''Déos'', label=Genitive case, genitive el, Δίας, ''D ...
' advances, but he turned into a swan. She later bore the egg in which
Helen of Troy
Helen of Troy, Helen, Helena, (Ancient Greek: Ἑλένη ''Helénē'', ) also known as beautiful Helen, Helen of Argos, or Helen of Sparta, was a figure in Greek mythology said to have been the most beautiful woman in the world. She was believe ...
was found.
Vertumnus
In Roman mythology, Vertumnus (; also Vortumnus or Vertimnus) is the god of seasons, change and plant growth, as well as gardens and fruit trees. He could change his form at will; using this power, according to Ovid's ''Metamorphoses'' (xiv) ...
transformed himself into an old woman to gain entry to
Pomona's orchard; there, he persuaded her to marry him.
In other tales, the woman appealed to other gods to protect her from rape, and was transformed (
Daphne
Daphne (; ; el, Δάφνη, , ), a minor figure in Greek mythology, is a naiad, a variety of female nymph associated with fountains, wells, springs, streams, brooks and other bodies of freshwater.
There are several versions of the myth in whi ...
into laurel,
Cornix
In Greek mythology, Greek and Roman mythology, Cornix is a character in Ovid's ''Metamorphoses (poem), Metamorphoses''. She was a princess and the daughter of Coronaeus.
Mythology
One day as Cornix was walking by the seashore, Neptune (mytholog ...
into a crow). Unlike Zeus and other gods' shape-shifting, these women were permanently metamorphosed.
In one tale,
Demeter
In ancient Greek religion and mythology, Demeter (; Attic: ''Dēmḗtēr'' ; Doric: ''Dāmā́tēr'') is the Olympian goddess of the harvest and agriculture, presiding over crops, grains, food, and the fertility of the earth. Although s ...
transformed herself into a mare to escape
Poseidon
Poseidon (; grc-gre, Ποσειδῶν) was one of the Twelve Olympians in ancient Greek religion and myth, god of the sea, storms, earthquakes and horses.Burkert 1985pp. 136–139 In pre-Olympian Bronze Age Greece, he was venerated as a ch ...
, but Poseidon counter-transformed himself into a stallion to pursue her, and succeeded in the rape.
Caenis
Antonia Caenis or Cenide, (died 74 AD) a former slave and secretary of Antonia Minor (mother of the emperor Claudius), was Roman emperor Vespasian's '' contubernalis''.
Life
It could be thought that she had family in Istria, now in Croatia, bas ...
, having been raped by
Poseidon
Poseidon (; grc-gre, Ποσειδῶν) was one of the Twelve Olympians in ancient Greek religion and myth, god of the sea, storms, earthquakes and horses.Burkert 1985pp. 136–139 In pre-Olympian Bronze Age Greece, he was venerated as a ch ...
, demanded of him that she be changed to a man. He agreed, and she became
Caeneus
In Greek mythology, Caeneus ( ; grc, Καινεύς, Kaineús) was a Lapith hero of Thessaly.
Family
According to Book XII of Ovid's ''Metamorphoses'', he was originally a woman, Caenis (; grc, Καινίς, Kainís), daughter of Atrax.
In ...
, a form he never lost, except, in some versions, upon death.
Clytie (Oceanid), Clytie was a nymph who loved Helios, but he did not love her back. Desperate, she sat on a rock with no food or water for nine days looking at him as he crossed the skies, until she was transformed into a purple, sun-gazing flower, the heliotropium.
As a final reward from the gods for their hospitality, Baucis and Philemon were transformed, at their deaths, into a pair of trees.
Eos, the goddess of the dawn, secured immortality for her lover the Troy, Trojan prince Tithonus, but not eternal youth, so he aged without dying as he shriveled and grew more and more helpless. In the end, Eos transformed him into a cicada.
In some variants of the tale of Narcissus (mythology), Narcissus, he is turned into a Narcissus (plant), narcissus flower.
![Cadmus teeth](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Cadmus_teeth.jpg)
Sometimes metamorphoses transformed objects into humans. In the myths of both Jason and Cadmus, one task set to the hero was to sow Dragon's teeth (mythology), dragon's teeth; on being sown, they would metamorphose into belligerent warriors, and both heroes had to throw a rock to trick them into fighting each other to survive. Deucalion and Pyrrha repopulated the world after a flood by throwing stones behind them; they were transformed into people. Cadmus is also often known to have transformed into a dragon or serpent towards the end of his life. Pygmalion (mythology), Pygmalion fell in love with Galatea (mythology), Galatea, a statue he had made.
Aphrodite
Aphrodite ( ; grc-gre, Ἀφροδίτη, Aphrodítē; , , ) is an ancient Greek goddess associated with love, lust, beauty, pleasure, passion, and procreation. She was syncretized with the Roman goddess . Aphrodite's major symbols include ...
had pity on him and transformed the stone to a living woman.
British and Irish
Fairy, Fairies, witches, and Wizard (fantasy), wizards were all noted for their shape-shifting ability. Not all fairies could shapeshift, some having only the appearance of shape-shifting, through their power, called "glamour," to create illusions, and some were limited to changing their size, as with the spriggans, and others to a few forms. But others, such as the The Hedley Kow, Hedley Kow, could change to many forms, and both human and supernatural wizards were capable of both such changes, and inflicting them on others.
Witches could turn into hares and in that form steal milk and butter.
Many British fairy tales, such as ''Jack the Giant Killer'' and ''The Black Bull of Norroway'', feature shape-shifting.
Celtic mythology
Pwyll was transformed by Arawn into Arawn's own shape, and Arawn transformed himself into Pwyll's, so that they could trade places for a year and a day.
Llwyd ap Cil Coed transformed his wife and attendants into mice to attack a crop in revenge; when his wife is captured, he turned himself into three clergymen in succession to try to pay a ransom.
Math fab Mathonwy and Gwydion transform flowers into a woman named Blodeuwedd, and when she betrays her husband Lleu Llaw Gyffes, who is transformed into an eagle, they transform her again, into an owl.
Gilfaethwy committed rape on Goewin, Math fab Mathonwy's virgin footholder, with help from his brother Gwydion. Both were transformed into animals, for one year each. Gwydion was transformed into a stag, sow and wolf, and Gilfaethwy into a hind, boar and she-wolf. Each year, they had a child. Math turned the three young animals into boys.
Taliesin, Gwion, having accidentally taken some of the wisdom potion that Ceridwen was brewing for her son, fled from her through a succession of changes that she answered with changes of her own, ending with his being eaten, a grain of corn, by her as a hen. She became pregnant, and he was reborn in a new form, as Taliesin.
Tales abound about the selkie, a seal that can remove its skin to make contact with humans for only a short amount of time before it must return to the sea. Clan MacColdrum of Uist's foundation myths include a union between the founder of the clan and a shape-shifting selkie. Another such creature is the Scottish selkie, which needs its sealskin to regain its form. In ''The Great Silkie of Sule Skerry'' the (male) selkie seduces a human woman. Such stories surrounding these creatures are usually romantic tragedies.
![Thekelpie large](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Thekelpie_large.jpg)
Scottish mythology features shapeshifters, which allows the various creatures to trick, deceive, hunt, and kill humans. Water spirits such as the each-uisge, which inhabit lochs and waterways in Scotland, were said to appear as a horse or a young man.
Other tales include kelpies who emerge from lochs and rivers in the disguise of a horse or woman in order to ensnare and kill weary travelers. Tam Lin, a man captured by the Queen of the Fairies is changed into all manner of beasts before being rescued. He finally turned into a burning coal and was thrown into a well, whereupon he reappeared in his human form. The motif of capturing a person by holding him through all forms of transformation is a common thread in folklore, folktales.
Perhaps the best-known Irish mythology, Irish myth is that of Aoife who turned her stepchildren, the Children of Lir, into swans to be rid of them. Likewise, in the ''Tochmarc Étaíne'', Fuamnach jealously turns Étaín into a butterfly. The most dramatic example of shape-shifting in Irish myth is that of Tuan mac Cairill, the only survivor of Partholón's settlement of Ireland. In his centuries long life he became successively a stag, a wild boar, a hawk and finally a salmon prior to being eaten and (as in the Wooing of Étaín) reborn as a human.
The Púca is a Celtic faery, and also a deft shapeshifter. He can transform into many different, terrifying forms.
Sadhbh, the wife of the famous hero Fionn mac Cumhaill, was changed into a deer by the druid Fear Doirche, Fer Doirich when she spurned his amorous interests.
Norse
There is a significant amount of literature about shapeshifters that appear in a variety of Norse tales.
In the Lokasenna, Odin and
Loki
Loki is a god in Norse mythology. According to some sources, Loki is the son of Fárbauti (a jötunn) and Laufey (mentioned as a goddess), and the brother of Helblindi and Býleistr. Loki is married to Sigyn and they have two sons, Narfi or Na ...
taunt each other with having taken the form of females and nursing offspring to which they had given birth. A 13th-century Edda relates Loki taking the form of a mare to bear Odin's steed Sleipnir which was the fastest horse ever to exist, and also the form of a she-wolf to bear Fenrir.
Svipdagr angered Odin, who turned him into a dragon. Despite his monstrous appearance, his lover, the goddess Freyja, refused to leave his side. When the warrior Hadding found and slew Svipdagr, Freyja cursed him to be tormented by a tempest and shunned like the plague wherever he went. In the ''Hyndluljóð'', Freyja transformed her protégé Óttar (mythology), Óttar into a boar to conceal him. She also possessed a cloak of falcon feathers that allowed her to transform into a falcon, which Loki borrowed on occasion.
The Volsunga saga contains many shape-shifting characters. Siggeir's mother changed into a wolf to help torture his defeated brothers-in-law with slow and ignominious deaths. When one, Sigmund, survived, he and his nephew and son Sinfjötli killed men wearing wolfskins; when they donned the skins themselves, they were cursed to become
werewolves
In folklore, a werewolf (), or occasionally lycanthrope (; ; uk, Вовкулака, Vovkulaka), is an individual that can shapeshift into a wolf (or, especially in modern film, a therianthropic hybrid wolf-like creature), either purposely or ...
.
The dwarf Andvari is described as being able to magically turn into a Esox, pike. Alberich, his counterpart in Richard Wagner's ''Der Ring des Nibelungen'', using the Tarnhelm, takes on many forms, including a giant serpent and a toad, in a failed attempt to impress or intimidate Loki and Odin/Odin, Wotan.
Fafnir was originally a dwarf, a giant or even a human, depending on the exact myth, but in all variants he transformed into a dragon—a symbol of Greed (deadly sin), greed—while guarding his ill-gotten hoard. His brother, Ótr, enjoyed spending time as an otter, which led to his accidental slaying by Loki.
In Scandinavia, there existed, for example, the famous race of she-werewolves known with a name of Maras, women who took on the appearance of huge half-human and half-wolf monsters that stalked the night in search of human or animal prey. If a woman gives birth at midnight and stretches the membrane which envelopes the child when it is brought forth, between four sticks and creeps through it, naked, she will bear children without pain; but all the boys will be Shamanism, shamans, and all the girls Maras.
The Nisse (folklore), Nisse is sometimes said to be a shapeshifter. This trait also is attributed to Hulder.
Gunnhild, Mother of Kings (''Gunnhild konungamóðir'') (c. 910 – c. 980), a quasi-historical figure who appears in the Icelandic Sagas, according to which she was the wife of Eric Bloodaxe, was credited with magic powers – including the power of shape-shifting
and turning at will into a bird. She is the central character of the novel ''Mother of Kings'' by Poul Anderson, which considerably elaborates on her shape-shifting abilities.
Indian
*Ichchadhari naag and naagin (shape-shifting cobra), Shape-shifting cobra: A common male cobra will become an ''ichchadhari naag'' (male shape-shifting cobra) and a common female cobra will become an ''ichchadhari naagin'' (female shape-shifting cobra) after 100 years of tapasya (penance). After being blessed by Lord Shiva, they attain a human form of their own, have the ability to shape-shifting into any living creatures and could live for more than a hundred years without getting old.
*Yoginis were associated with the power of shape-shifting into female animals.
*In the Indian fable ''The Dog Bride'' from ''Folklore of the Santal Parganas'' by Cecil Henry Bompas, a buffalo herder falls in love with a dog that has the power to turn into a woman when she bathes.
*In Kerala, there was a legend about the ''Odiyan'' clan, who in Kerala folklore are men believed to possess shape-shifting ability and can assume animal forms. Odiyans are said to have inhabited the Malabar Coast, Malabar region of Kerala before the widespread use of electricity.
Armenian
In Armenian mythology, shapeshifters include the ''Nhang'', a serpentine river monster than can transform itself into a woman or seal, and will drown humans and then drink their blood; or the beneficial ''Shahapet'', a guardian spirit that can appear either as a man or a snake.
["Armenian Mythology"](_blank)
by Mardiros H. Ananikiam, in ''Bullfinch's Mythology''
Philippines
Philippine mythology includes the Aswang, a vampiric monster capable of transforming into a bat, a large black dog, a black cat, a black boar or some other form in order to stalk humans at night. The folklore also mentions other beings such as the Kapre, the Tikbalang and the Engkanto, which change their appearances to woo beautiful maidens. Also, talismans (called "''anting-anting''" or "''birtud''" in the local dialect), can give their owners the ability to shape-shifting. In one tale, ''Chonguita the Monkey Wife'', a woman is turned into a monkey, only becoming human again if she can marry a handsome man.
Tatar
Tatarstan, Tatar folklore includes Yuxa, a hundred-year-old snake that can transform itself into a beautiful young woman, and seeks to marry men in order to have children.
Chinese
Chinese mythology contains many tales of animal shapeshifters, capable of taking on human form. The most common such shapeshifter is the
huli jing
Huli jing () are Chinese mythological creatures usually capable of shapeshifting, who may either be benevolent or malevolent spirits. In Chinese mythology and folklore, the fox spirit takes variant forms with different meanings, powers, charac ...
, a fox spirit which usually appears as a beautiful young woman; most are dangerous, but some feature as the heroines of love stories. ''Madame White Snake'' is one such legend; a snake falls in love with a man, and the story recounts the trials that she and her husband faced.
Japanese
![Kuniyoshi Kuzunoha](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/Kuniyoshi_Kuzunoha.jpg)
In Japanese folklore obake are a type of yōkai with the ability to shape-shifting. The fox, or Kitsune#Folklore, kitsune is among the most commonly known, but other such creatures include the bakeneko, the mujina and the Japanese raccoon dog, tanuki.
Korean
Korean mythology also contains a fox with the ability to shape-shifting. Unlike its Chinese and Japanese counterparts, the
kumiho
A kumiho or gumiho (, literally "nine-tailed fox") is a creature that appears in the folktales on East Asia and legends of Korea. It is similar to the Chinese and the Japanese . It can freely transform, among other things, into a beautiful woman ...
is always malevolent. Usually its form is of a beautiful young woman; one tale recounts a man, a would-be seducer, revealed as a kumiho. The kumiho has nine tails and as she desires to be a full human, she uses her beauty to seduce men and eat their hearts (or in some cases livers where the belief is that 100 livers would turn her into a real human).
Somali
In Somali mythology ''Qori ismaris'' ("One who rubs himself with a stick") was a man who could transform himself into a "Werehyena, Hyena-man" by rubbing himself with a magic stick at nightfall and by repeating this process could return to his human state before dawn.
Southern Africa
ǀKaggen is Mantis, a demi-urge and folk hero of the ǀXam people of southern Africa. He is a trickster god who can shape shift, usually taking the form of a praying mantis but also a bull Taurotragus, eland, a louse, a snake, and a caterpillar.
Trinidad and Tobago
The Lagahoo, Ligahoo or Werewolf, loup-garou is the shapeshifter of Caribbean folklore, Trinidad and Tobago's folklore. This unique ability is believed to be handed down in some old Creole peoples, creole families, and is usually associated with Witch doctor, witch-doctors and practitioners of African magic.
Mapuche (Argentina and Chile)
The name of the Nahuel Huapi Lake in Argentina derives from the toponym of its major island in Mapudungun (Mapuche language): "Island of the Jaguar (or Puma)", from ''nahuel'', "puma (or jaguar)", and ''huapí'', "island". There is, however, more to the word "Nahuel" – it can also signify "a man who by
sorcery
Sorcery may refer to:
* Magic (supernatural), the application of beliefs, rituals or actions employed to subdue or manipulate natural or supernatural beings and forces
** Witchcraft, the practice of magical skills and abilities
* Magic in fiction, ...
has been transformed into a puma" (or jaguar).
Slavic Mythology
In Slavic Mythology, one of the main gods Veles (god), Veles was a shape-shifting god of animals, magic and the underworld. He was often represented as a bear, wolf, snake or owl. He also became a dragon while fighting Perun, the Slavic storm god.
Folktales
* In the Finnish tale ''The Magic Bird'', three young sorceresses attempt to murder a man who keeps reviving. His revenge is to turn them into three black mares and have them harnessed to heavy loads until he is satisfied.
* In ''The Laidly Worm of Spindleston Heugh'', a Northumbrian legend from about the thirteenth century, Princess Margaret of Bamburgh is transformed into a dragon by her stepmother; her motive sprung, like Snow White's stepmother's, from the comparison of their beauty.
* In Child ballad 35, "Allison Gross", the title witch turns a man into a European dragon, wyrm for refusing to be her lover. This is a motif found in many legends and folktales.
* In the German tale ''The Frog's Bridegroom'', recorded by folklorist and ethnographer Gustav Jungbauer, the third of three sons of a farmer, Hansl, is forced to marry a frog, which eventually turns out to be a beautiful woman transformed by a spell.
* In some variants of the fairy tales, both ''The Frog Prince'' or more commonly ''The Frog Princess'' and Beast, of ''Beauty and the Beast'', are transformed as a form of punishment for some transgression. Both are restored to their true forms after earning a human's love despite their appearance.
* In the most famous Lithuanian culture, Lithuanian folk tale ''Eglė the Queen of Serpents'', Eglė irreversibly transforms her children and herself into trees as a punishment for betrayal while her husband is able to reversibly morph into a serpent at will.
* In ''East of the Sun and West of the Moon'', the hero is transformed into a bear by his wicked Stepmother#In fiction, stepmother, who wishes to force him to marry her daughter.
* In ''The Marmot Queen'' by Italo Calvino, a Spanish queen is turned into a rodent by Morgan le Fay.
* In The Mare of the Necromancer, a Turin Italian tale by Guido Gozzano, the Princess of Corelandia is turned into a horse by the baron necromancer for refusing to marry him. Only the love and intelligence of Candido save the princess from the spell.
* The Deer in The Wood, a Neapolitan tale written by Giambattista Basile, describes the transformation of Princess Desiderata into a doe by a jealous fairy.
* From a Croatian book of tales, Sixty Folk-Tales from Exclusively Slavonic Sources by A. H. Wratislaw, the fable entitled "The she-wolf" tells of a huge she-wolf with a habit of turning into a woman from time to time by taking off her skin. One day a man witnesses the transformation, steals her pelt and marries her.
* ''The Merchant's Sons'' is a Finnish story of two brothers, one of whom tries to win the hand of the tsar's wicked daughter. The girl does not like her suitor and endeavors to have him killed, but he turns her into a beautiful mare which he and his brother ride. In the end he turns her back into a girl and marries her.
* In ''Dapplegrim'' if the youth found the transformed princess twice, and hid from her twice, they would marry.
* In literary fairy tale ''The Beggar Princess'', in order to save her beloved prince, Princess Yvonne fulfills the tasks of cruel king Ironheart and is changed into an old woman.
Themes
shape-shifting may be used as a plot device, such as when Puss in Boots in the fairy tales tricks the ogre into becoming a mouse to be eaten. Shape-shifting may also include symbolic significance, like the Beast's transformation in ''Beauty and the Beast'' indicates Belle's ability to accept him despite his appearance.
When a form is taken on involuntarily, the thematic effect can be one of confinement and restraint; the person is ''bound'' to the new form. In extreme cases, such as Petrifaction in mythology and fiction, petrifaction, the character is entirely disabled. On the other hand, voluntary shape-shifting can be a means of escape and liberation. Even when the form is not undertaken to resemble a literal escape, the abilities specific to the form allow the character to act in a manner that was previously impossible.
Examples of this are in fairy tales. A prince who is forced into a bear's shape (as in ''East of the Sun and West of the Moon'') is a prisoner, but a princess who takes on a bear's shape voluntarily to flee a situation (as in ''The She-Bear'') escapes with her new shape. In the Earthsea books, Ursula K. Le Guin depicts an animal form as slowly transforming the wizard's mind, so that the dolphin, bear or other creature forgets it was human, making it impossible to change back. This makes an example for a voluntary shape-shifting becoming an imprisoning metamorphosis.
Beyond this, the uses of shape-shifting, transformation, and metamorphosis in fiction are as Proteus, protean as the forms the characters take on. Some are rare, such as Italo Calvino's "The Canary Prince" is a Rapunzel variant in which shape-shifting is used to gain access to the tower.
Punitive changes
In many cases, imposed forms are punitive in nature. This may be a just punishment, the nature of the transformation matching the crime for which it occurs; in other cases, the form is unjustly imposed by an angry and powerful person. In fairy tales, such transformations are usually temporary, but they commonly appear as the Falling action, resolution of myths (as in many of the Metamorphoses) or produce origin myths.
Transformation chase
In many fairy tales and ballads, as in Child Ballads, Child Ballad #44, ''The Twa Magicians'' or ''Farmer Weathersky'', a magical chase occurs where the pursued endlessly takes on forms in an effort to shake off the pursuer, and the pursuer answers with shape-shifting, as, a dove is answered with a hawk, and a hare with a greyhound. The pursued may finally succeed in escape or the pursuer in capturing.
The Grimm Brothers fairy tale ''Foundling-Bird'' contains this as the bulk of the plot.
[Vladimir Propp, ''Morphology of the Folk Tale'', p. 57, ] In the Italian Campania Fables collection of ''Pentamerone'' by Gianbattista Basile, tells of a Neapolitan princess who, to escape from her father who had imprisoned her, becomes a huge she-bear. The magic happens due to a potion given to her by an old witch. The girl, once gone, can regain her human aspect.
In other variants, the pursued may transform various objects into obstacles, as in the fairy tale "The Master Maid", where the Master Maid transforms a wooden comb into a forest, a lump of salt into a mountain, and a flask of water into a sea. In these tales, the pursued normally escapes after overcoming Rule of three (writing), three obstacles.
This obstacle chase is literally found worldwide, in many variants in every region.
In fairy tales of the Aarne–Thompson type 313A, The Girl Helps the Hero Flee, such a chase is an integral part of the tale. It can be either a transformation chase (as in ''The Grateful Prince'', ''King Kojata'', ''Foundling-Bird'', ''Jean, the Soldier, and Eulalie, the Devil's Daughter'', or ''The Two Kings' Children'') or an obstacle chase (as in ''The Battle of the Birds'', ''The White Dove (Danish fairy tale), The White Dove'', or ''The Master Maid'').
In a similar effect, a captive may shape-shifting in order to break a hold on him.
Proteus
In Greek mythology, Proteus (; Ancient Greek: Πρωτεύς, ''Prōteus'') is an early prophetic sea-god or god of rivers and oceanic bodies of water, one of several deities whom Homer calls the "Old Man of the Sea" ''(hálios gérôn)''. ...
and
Nereus
In Greek mythology, Nereus ( ; ) was the eldest son of Pontus (the Sea) and Gaia (the Earth), with Pontus himself being a son of Gaia. Nereus and Doris became the parents of 50 daughters (the Nereids) and a son ( Nerites), with whom Nereus liv ...
's shape-shifting was to prevent heroes such as
Menelaus
In Greek mythology, Menelaus (; grc-gre, Μενέλαος , 'wrath of the people', ) was a king of Mycenaean (pre- Dorian) Sparta. According to the ''Iliad'', Menelaus was a central figure in the Trojan War, leading the Spartan contingent of th ...
and
Heracles
Heracles ( ; grc-gre, Ἡρακλῆς, , glory/fame of Hera), born Alcaeus (, ''Alkaios'') or Alcides (, ''Alkeidēs''), was a divine hero in Greek mythology, the son of Zeus and Alcmene, and the foster son of Amphitryon.By his adoptive ...
from forcing information from them. Tam Lin, once seized by Janet, was transformed by the Fairy, faeries to keep Janet from taking him, but as he had advised her, she did not let go, and so freed him. The motif of capturing a person by holding him through many transformations is found in folktales throughout Europe,
[Francis James Child, ''The English and Scottish Popular Ballads'', v 1, pp. 336–7, Dover Publications, New York 1965] and Patricia A. McKillip references it in her ''Patricia A. McKillip bibliography#The Riddle-Master trilogy, Riddle-Master trilogy'': a shape-shifting Earthmaster finally wins its freedom by startling the man holding it.
Powers
One motif is a shape change in order to obtain abilities in the new form. Berserkers were held to change into wolves and bears in order to fight more effectively. In many cultures, evil magicians could transform into animal shapes and thus skulk about.
In many fairy tales, the hero's talking animal donor (fairy tale), helper proves to be a shapeshifted human being, able to help him in its animal form. In one variation, featured in ''The Three Enchanted Princes'' and ''The Death of Koschei the Deathless'', the hero's three sisters have been married to animals. These prove to be shapeshifted men, who aid their brother-in-law in a variant of tale types.
In an Maya script#History, early Mayan text, the Shapeshifter, or Mestaclocan, has the ability to change his appearance and to manipulate the minds of animals. In one tale, the Mestaclocan finds a dying eagle. Changing into the form of an eagle, he convinces the dying bird that it is, in fact, not dying. As the story goes they both soar into the heavens, and lived together for eternity.
Bildungsroman
''Beauty and the Beast'' has been interpreted as a young woman's coming-of-age, in which she changes from being repulsed by sexual activity and regarding a husband therefore bestial, to a mature woman who can marry.
Needed items
![Valkyries with swan skins](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/Valkyries_with_swan_skins.jpg)
Some shapeshifters are able to change form only if they have some item, usually an article of clothing. In ''Bisclavret'' by Marie de France, a werewolf cannot regain human form without his clothing, but in wolf form does no harm to anyone. The most common use of this motif, however, is in tales where a man steals the article and forces the shapeshifter, trapped in human form, to become his bride. This lasts until she discovers where he has hidden the article, and she can flee. Selkies feature in these tales. Others include swan maidens and the Japanese ''tennin''.
Swedish writer Selma Lagerlöf, in ''The Wonderful Adventures of Nils'', included a version of the story with the typical elements (fisherman sees mermaids dancing on an island and steals the sealskin of one of them, preventing her from becoming a seal again so that he could marry her) and linked it to the founding of the city of Stockholm.
Inner conflict
The power to externally transform can symbolize an internal savagery; a central theme in many strands of werewolf mythology, and the Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde#Analysis, inversion of the "liberation" theme, as in Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde#Plot, Dr Jekyll's transformation into Mr. Hyde.
Usurpation
![Vasnetsov Alenushka](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/Vasnetsov_Alenushka.jpg)
Some transformations are performed to remove the victim from his place, so that the transformer can usurp it. Bisclaveret's wife steals his clothing and traps him in wolf form because she has a lover. A witch, in ''The Wonderful Birch'', changed a mother into a sheep to take her place, and had the mother slaughtered; when her stepdaughter married the king, the witch transformed her into a reindeer so as to put her daughter in the queen's place. In the Korean ''Transformation of the Kumiho'', a
kumiho
A kumiho or gumiho (, literally "nine-tailed fox") is a creature that appears in the folktales on East Asia and legends of Korea. It is similar to the Chinese and the Japanese . It can freely transform, among other things, into a beautiful woman ...
, a fox with magical powers, transformed itself into an image of the bride, only being detected when her clothing is removed. In ''Brother and Sister'', when two children flee from their cruel stepmother, she enchants the streams along the way to transform them. While the brother refrains from the first two, which threaten to turn them into tigers and wolves, he is too thirsty at the third, which turns him into a deer. ''The Six Swans'' are transformed into swans by their Stepmother#In fiction, stepmother, as are the Children of Lir in Irish mythology.
Ill-advised wishes
Many fairy-tale characters have expressed ill-advised wishes to have any child at all, even one that has another form, and had such children born to them. At the end of the fairy tale, normally after marriage, such children metamorphose into human form. ''Hans My Hedgehog'' was born when his father wished for a child, even a hedgehog. Even stranger forms are possible: Giambattista Basile included in his ''Pentamerone'' the The Myrtle, tale of a girl born as a sprig of myrtle, and Italo Calvino, in his ''Italian Folktales'', a girl born as an apple.
Sometimes, the parent who wishes for a child is told how to gain one, but does not obey the directions perfectly, resulting in the transformed birth. In ''Lindworm#In tales, Prince Lindworm'', the woman eats two onions, but does not peel one, resulting in her first child being a lindworm. In ''Tatterhood'', a woman magically produces two flowers, but disobeys the directions to eat only the beautiful one, resulting her having a beautiful and sweet daughter, but only after a disgusting and hideous one.
Less commonly, ill-advised wishes can transform a person after birth. ''The Seven Ravens'' are transformed when their father thinks his sons are playing instead of fetching water to christen their newborn and sickly sister, and curses them. In ''Puddocky'', when three princes start to quarrel over the beautiful heroine, a witch curses her because of the noise.
Monstrous bride/bridegroom
Such wished-for children may become monstrous brides or bridegrooms. These tales have often been interpreted as symbolically representing arranged marriages; the bride's revulsion to marrying a stranger being symbolized by his bestial form.
The heroine must fall in love with the transformed groom. The hero or heroine must marry, as promised, and the monstrous form is removed by the wedding. Sir Gawain thus transformed the Loathly lady; although he was told that this was half-way, she could at his choice be beautiful by day and hideous by night, or vice versa, he told her that he would choose what she preferred, which broke the spell entirely. In ''Tatterhood'', Tatterhood is transformed by her asking her bridegroom why he didn't ask her why she rode a goat, why she carried a spoon, and why she was so ugly, and when he asked her, denying it and therefore transforming her goat into a horse, her spoon into a fan, and herself into a beauty. Puddocky is transformed when her prince, after she had helped him with two other tasks, tells him that his father has sent him for a bride. A similar effect is found in Child ballad 34, ''Kemp Owyne'', where the hero can transform a dragon back into a maiden by kissing her three times.
Sometimes the bridegroom removes his animal skin for the wedding night, whereupon it can be burned. ''Hans My Hedgehog'', ''The Donkey (fairy tale), The Donkey'' and ''The Pig King'' fall under this grouping. At an extreme, in ''King Lindworm, Prince Lindworm'', the bride who avoids being eaten by the lindworm bridegroom arrives at her wedding wearing every gown she owns, and she tells the bridegroom she will remove one of hers if he removes one of his; only when her last gown comes off has he removed his last skin, and become a white shape that she can form into a man.
[Terri Windling, ""]
In some tales, the hero or heroine must obey a prohibition; the bride must spend a period of time not seeing the transformed groom in human shape (as in ''East of the Sun and West of the Moon''), or the bridegroom must not burn the animals' skins. In ''The Brown Bear of Norway'', ''The Golden Crab'', ''The Enchanted Snake'' and some variants of ''The Frog Princess'', burning the skin is a catastrophe, putting the transformed bride or bridegroom in danger. In these tales, the prohibition is broken, invariably, resulting in a separation and a search by one spouse for the other.
Death
Ghosts sometimes appear in animal form. In ''The Famous Flower of Serving-Men'', the heroine's murdered husband appears to the king as a white dove, lamenting her fate over his own grave. In ''The White and the Black Bride'' and ''The Three Little Men in the Wood'', the murdered – drowned – true bride reappears as a white duck. In ''The Rose Tree'' and ''The Juniper Tree (fairy tale), The Juniper Tree'', the murdered children become birds who avenge their own deaths. There are African folk tales of murder victims avenging themselves in the form of Mugger crocodile, crocodiles that can shape-shifting into human form.
In some fairy tales, the character can reveal himself in every new form, and so a usurper repeatedly kills the victim in every new form, as in ''Beauty and Pock Face'', ''A String of Pearls Twined with Golden Flowers'', and ''The Boys with the Golden Stars''. This eventually leads to a form in which the character (or characters) can reveal the truth to someone able to stop the villain.
Similarly, the transformation back may be acts that would be fatal. In ''The Wounded Lion'', the prescription for turning the lion back into a prince was to kill him, chop him to pieces, burn the pieces, and throw the ash into water. Less drastic but no less apparently fatal, the fox in ''The Golden Bird'', the foals in ''The Seven Foals'', and the cats in ''Lord Peter (fairy tale), Lord Peter'' and ''The White Cat (fairy tale), The White Cat'' tell the heroes of those stories to cut off their heads; this restores them to human shape. In the Greek tale of Scylla (princess), Scylla, Scylla's father Nisos, Nisus turns into an eagle after death and drowns her daughter for betraying her father.
Modern
Fiction
* In George MacDonald's ''The Princess and Curdie'' (1883) Curdie is informed that many human beings, by their acts, are slowly turning into beasts. Curdie is given the power to detect the transformation before it is visible, and is assisted by beasts that had been transformed and are working their way back to humanity.
* In Carlo Collodi's story ''The Adventures of Pinocchio'' (1883), the boys who visit the Land of Toys turn into donkeys.
* L. Frank Baum concluded ''The Marvelous Land of Oz'' (1904) with the revelation that Princess Ozma, sought by the protagonists, had been turned into a boy as a baby, and that Tip (who had been searching for her) is that boy. He agrees to have the transformation reversed, but Glinda, Glinda the Good disapproves of shape-shifting magic, so it is done by the evil witch Mombi.
* The science fiction short story "Who Goes There?" written by John W. Campbell (later adapted to film as ''The Thing from Another World'' and ''The Thing (1982 film), The Thing'') concerns a shape-shifting alien lifeform that can assume the form and memories of any creature it absorbs.
*T. H. White, in the 1938 book ''The Sword in the Stone (novel), The Sword in the Stone'', has Merlin and Madam Mim fight a wizards' duel, in which the duelists would endlessly transform until one was in a form that could destroy the other. He also had Merlin transform King Arthur, Arthur into various animals as an educational experience.
* In C. S. Lewis' ''The Chronicles of Narnia'', Eustace Scrubb transforms into a dragon, and the war-monger Prince Rabadash, Rabadash into a donkey. Eustace's transformation is not strictly a punishment – the change simply reveals the truth of his selfishness. It is reversed after he repents and his moral nature changes. Rabadash is allowed to reverse his transformation, providing he does so in a public place, so that his former followers will know that he had been a donkey. He is warned that, if he ever leaves his capital city again, he will become a donkey permanently, and this prevents him leading further military campaigns.
* Both the Earthmasters and their opponents in Patricia A. McKillip's 1976 ''The Riddle-Master of Hed'' trilogy make extensive use of their shape-shifting abilities for the powers of their new forms.
* James A. Hetley's contemporary fantasy books ''Dragon's Eye'' and ''Dragon's Teeth'' centers on the Morgan family of Stonefort, Maine – present-day Americans who are secretly able to turn themselves into seals at will (and making extensive use of that ability in their fighting with various other characters).
* In Sean Catt's ''Between States'' series the principle character Jake Palmer is a cougar shapeshifter. Palmer, kidnapped off the street in his mid twenties, is forced to work as an albeit reluctant asset (assassin) for a covert CIA Black Ops unit that uses feline shapeshifters for the extrajudicial killing of selected targets. The CIA believing that being killed by a big cat could only ever be seen as a tragic accident.
Popular culture
*''Naagin (2015 TV series), Naagin'' is the most popular television series about Ichchadhari naag and naagin (shape-shifting cobra), shape-shifting cobras taking revenge from the villains for killing their loved ones and stealing the ''naagmani'', a gem has the power to revive and is considered much more valuable than any precious stones.
*''The X-Files'' features a species known as the Colonist_(The_X-Files), Colonists who are infiltrating Earth in order to colonize the planet.
*In David Icke's works, Reptilian conspiracy theory, reptilian shapeshifters secretly control many aspects of human society by taking on human form and gaining political power to manipulate humanity.
*In the ''Doctor Who'' episode "Terror of the Zygons" (1975), the main antagonists, called the Zygons, can shapeshift into humans and other animals (such as horses). However, they need to keep the copied person or animal alive in order to be able to change back into their natural form.
*The ''X-Men'' comics and films feature Mystique (character), Mystique a shapeshifter who can look like any other person.
*The ''DC Comics'' universe features a wide range of shapeshifters, the most prominent being Plastic Man, Martian Manhunter and the Clayface, Clayfaces.
*''Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country'' (1991) features a shapeshifting female prisoner who is involved in nearly killing James Kirk, but is herself killed.
*In ''Thunderheart'' (1992), starring Val Kilmer, the character Jimmy Looks Twice evades capture by shape-shifting at will into a series of animals.
*''Star Trek: Deep Space Nine'' features a species known as the Changelings, the race of psionically capable shapeshifters who founded the Dominion.
*''Twilight (novel series), The Twilight Saga'' also features List of Twilight characters#Seth Clearwater, shapeshifters that can transform into wolves and have inhuman Superhuman strength, strength, speed, body temperature and aging process.
*In ''Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones'' (2002), Zam Wesell attempts to assassinate Padme Amidala. When Zam flees, Anakin Skywalker, Anakin pursues her and discovers she is a shapeshifter. Zam Wesell reverts to her natural form when her employer assassinates her.
*American band ''Nahr Alhumam''s debut album is named ''Transmogrification'', contains themes around physical and spiritual shape-shifting of the earth as a planet.
*In ''Supernatural (American TV series), Supernatural'', the shapeshifters are recurring creatures of the series. Shapeshifter first appeared in Season 1, Episode 6 titled "Skin".
*In ''Encanto'', Camilo has the ability to shapeshift.
*In the Animorphs books, an alien species known as the Andalites has shapeshifting or “morphing” technology that is shared with the Animorphs, giving them the power to shapeshift.
*In the The Heroes of Olympus, Heroes of Olympus book series, demigod Frank Zhang possesses the ability to shapeshift as a gift from his ancestor
Poseidon
Poseidon (; grc-gre, Ποσειδῶν) was one of the Twelve Olympians in ancient Greek religion and myth, god of the sea, storms, earthquakes and horses.Burkert 1985pp. 136–139 In pre-Olympian Bronze Age Greece, he was venerated as a ch ...
.
See also
*Naagin (2015 TV series), Naagin (2015 TV series)
* Marvel Comics' Skrull extraterrestrial beings (1962–present)
* Size change in fiction, Resizing (fiction)
* Hantu Raya
* Kindama
* Maricha
* Skin-walker
* Soul eater (folklore)
* The Thing (1982 film), ''The Thing'' (1982 film)
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
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Further reading
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*Kachuba, John B. 2019. ''Shapeshifters: A History.'' Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
*Wood, Felicity. "The Shape-Shifter on the Borderlands: A Comparative Study of the Trickster Figure in African Orality and in Oral Narratives Concerning one South African Trickster, Khotso Sethuntsa." ''English in Africa'' (2010): 71–90.
*Zaytoun, Kelli D. "“Now Let Us Shift” the Subject: Tracing the Path and Posthumanist Implications of La Naguala/The Shapeshifter in the Works of Gloria Anzaldúa." ''MELUS: Multi-Ethnic Literature of the United States'' 40.4 (2015): 69–88.
External links
*
Real Shapeshifters Website Dedicated to the study of shape-shifting phenomena (realshapeshifters.com)
nbsp;– A series of articles about shape-shifting characters in romance and speculative fiction.
{{Authority control
Shapeshifting,
Fantasy tropes
Mythological powers
Science fiction themes
Supernatural legends