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The Shailodbhava (
IAST The International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration (IAST) is a transliteration scheme that allows the lossless romanisation of Indic scripts as employed by Sanskrit and related Indic languages. It is based on a scheme that emerged during ...
: Śailodbhava) dynasty ruled parts of eastern India during the 6th-8th centuries. Their core territory was known as Kongoda-mandala, and included parts of the present-day
Ganjam Ganjam is a town and a notified area council in Ganjam district in the state of Odisha, India. Brahmapur, one of the major city of Odisha is situated in this district. Geography Ganjam is located at in the Ganjam district of Odisha with an ...
,
Khordha Khordha is a town and a municipality area in Khordha district in the Indian state of Odisha. Bhubaneswar, is the capital of Odisha located within the Khordha district and is only 25 km from Khordha town. Odisha State Highway 1 and Nationa ...
and
Puri Puri () is a coastal city and a Nagar Palika, municipality in the state of Odisha in eastern India. It is the district headquarters of Puri district and is situated on the Bay of Bengal, south of the state capital of Bhubaneswar. It is als ...
districts in the
Odisha Odisha (English: , ), formerly Orissa ( the official name until 2011), is an Indian state located in Eastern India. It is the 8th largest state by area, and the 11th largest by population. The state has the third largest population of ...
state. Their capital was located at Kongoda, which is identified with modern
Banapur Banapur is a town and a Notified Area Council in Khordha district in the state of Odisha, India. The town is named after the King Banasura of Lord Shri Krishna era (as the epic tells). Banasura, a demon-king who is said to have ruled over this ...
. The early rulers of the dynasty were feudatories to the Vigrahas, the Mudgalas, and
Shashanka Shashanka (IAST: Śaśāṃka) was the first independent king of a unified polity in the Bengal region, called the Gauda Kingdom and is a major figure in Bengali history. He reigned in the 7th century, some historians place his rule between circ ...
. The Shailodbhava ruler Madhavaraja II seems to have assumed sovereignty soon after 620 CE. The dynasty declined in the 8th century, and their territory came under the Bhauma-Kara rule.


Origin

The word "Shailodbhava" literally means "born out of rocks". The Shailodbhava inscriptions narrate the following myth of the dynasty's origin: Pulindasena, a famous man of
Kalinga Kalinga may refer to: Geography, linguistics and/or ethnology * Kalinga (historical region), a historical region of India ** Kalinga (Mahabharata), an apocryphal kingdom mentioned in classical Indian literature ** Kalinga script, an ancient writin ...
, prayed the god
Svayambhu Swayambhu ( sa, स्वयंभू) is a Sanskrit word that means "self-manifested", "self-existing", or "that is created by its own accord". Often, the word swayambhu is used to describe a self-manifested image of a deity, which was not made ...
to create a man capable of ruling the earth. The dynasty's founder Shailodbhava emerged from a rock as a result of this prayer. The god is identified as Hara (
Shiva Shiva (; sa, शिव, lit=The Auspicious One, Śiva ), also known as Mahadeva (; ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐ, or Hara, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions within Hindu ...
) in one inscription. Associating Pulindasena with the ancient
Pulinda Pulinda (Sanskrit: ) was an ancient tribe of south-central South Asia whose existence is attested during the Iron Age. The Pulindas were a non- Indo-Aryan tribe. Location During the later Vedic period, the Pulindas were living to the south-east ...
tribe, historians such as
Upinder Singh Upinder Singh is an Indian historian who is Professor of History and Dean of Faculty at Ashoka University. She is the former head of the History Department at the University of Delhi. She is also the recipient of the inaugural Infosys Prize in t ...
believe that this myth reflects the
tribal The term tribe is used in many different contexts to refer to a category of human social group. The predominant worldwide usage of the term in English is in the discipline of anthropology. This definition is contested, in part due to conflic ...
origins of the dynasty. The motif of emerging from a rock may suggest that the dynasty was initially based in a region featuring rocky terrain: the Shailodbhava inscriptions name the Mahendra mountain as the dynasty's ''kula-giri'' (tutelary mountain). The mention of Shiva shows that the rulers were
Shaivite Shaivism (; sa, शैवसम्प्रदायः, Śaivasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the Supreme Being. One of the largest Hindu denominations, it incorporates many sub-traditions rangin ...
s. Patit Paban Mishra also suggests that the Shailodbhavas were of tribal descent.


History

Much of the information about the dynasty comes from its sixteen copper-plate inscriptions. This information is corroborated by other sources, such as monuments and accounts of foreign travelers.


As feudatories

Find spot Provenance (from the French ''provenir'', 'to come from/forth') is the chronology of the ownership, custody or location of a historical object. The term was originally mostly used in relation to works of art but is now used in similar senses i ...
s of the Shailodbhava inscriptions" width="250" height="250" zoom="6" longitude="85.03" latitude="19.68"> The Shailodbhavas ruled a region centred around present-day
Ganjam Ganjam is a town and a notified area council in Ganjam district in the state of Odisha, India. Brahmapur, one of the major city of Odisha is situated in this district. Geography Ganjam is located at in the Ganjam district of Odisha with an ...
; this region came to be known as Kongoda-mandala during their reign. Earlier, around 570-71 CE (250
Gupta era The Gupta era is a historical calendar era that begins from c. 318–319 CE. It was used by the Gupta emperors, as well as their vassals and their successors in present-day northern India and Nepal. It is identical to the Vallabhi era (or Valabh ...
), this region was controlled by Dharmaraja of Abhaya family, who ruled as a feudatory of Vigraha. It was later ruled by the semi-independent king Charamparaja. The introductory part of a 620-21 CE inscription of the Shailodbhava ruler Madhavaraja II is similar to that of the 570-71 Sumandala inscription of Dharmaraja of Abhaya family. Historian Snigdha Tripathy theorizes that Dharmaraja of Abhaya family and Charamparaja were members of the family that later came to be known as Shailodbhava. The rulers of this family acknowledged the suzerainty of the Vigraha and Mudgala dynasties, before the Gauda king
Shashanka Shashanka (IAST: Śaśāṃka) was the first independent king of a unified polity in the Bengal region, called the Gauda Kingdom and is a major figure in Bengali history. He reigned in the 7th century, some historians place his rule between circ ...
conquered the region. The Shailodbhava inscriptions name the descendants of the mythical founder Shailodbhava as Aranabhita (alias Ranabhita), Sainyabhita I (alias Madhavaraja I), Yashobhita (alias Ayashobhita), and Madhavavarman (alias Madhavaraja II or Sainyabhita II). A 620-21 CE (300
Gupta era The Gupta era is a historical calendar era that begins from c. 318–319 CE. It was used by the Gupta emperors, as well as their vassals and their successors in present-day northern India and Nepal. It is identical to the Vallabhi era (or Valabh ...
) inscription of Madhavaraja II shows that he was a feudatory of Shashanka. His predecessors Madhavaraja I and Ayashobhita may have been feudatories of Shashanka as well, although this cannot be said with certainty. Historian S. C. Behera attempted to identify Ayashobhita as Charamparaja.


As sovereigns

The Shailodbhava territory was known as Kongoda-mandala. Historian Snigdha Tripathy theorizes that after conquering present-day Odisha, the Gauda king
Shashanka Shashanka (IAST: Śaśāṃka) was the first independent king of a unified polity in the Bengal region, called the Gauda Kingdom and is a major figure in Bengali history. He reigned in the 7th century, some historians place his rule between circ ...
created the Kongoda-mandala province, and appointed Madhavaraja II as his feudatory of the region. This province was centred around the present-day
Ganjam Ganjam is a town and a notified area council in Ganjam district in the state of Odisha, India. Brahmapur, one of the major city of Odisha is situated in this district. Geography Ganjam is located at in the Ganjam district of Odisha with an ...
,
Khordha Khordha is a town and a municipality area in Khordha district in the Indian state of Odisha. Bhubaneswar, is the capital of Odisha located within the Khordha district and is only 25 km from Khordha town. Odisha State Highway 1 and Nationa ...
and
Puri Puri () is a coastal city and a Nagar Palika, municipality in the state of Odisha in eastern India. It is the district headquarters of Puri district and is situated on the Bay of Bengal, south of the state capital of Bhubaneswar. It is als ...
districts. Its capital was Kongoda, which was located on the banks of the Salima river according to the dynasty's inscriptions. The town has been identified with modern
Banapur Banapur is a town and a Notified Area Council in Khordha district in the state of Odisha, India. The town is named after the King Banasura of Lord Shri Krishna era (as the epic tells). Banasura, a demon-king who is said to have ruled over this ...
, and the river with the modern Salia river. Madhavaraja II seems to have gained independence soon after 620 CE, as his
Khordha Khordha is a town and a municipality area in Khordha district in the Indian state of Odisha. Bhubaneswar, is the capital of Odisha located within the Khordha district and is only 25 km from Khordha town. Odisha State Highway 1 and Nationa ...
inscription does not mention any overlord. It describes him as ''Sakala-Kalingadhipati'' (the lord of the entire
Kalinga Kalinga may refer to: Geography, linguistics and/or ethnology * Kalinga (historical region), a historical region of India ** Kalinga (Mahabharata), an apocryphal kingdom mentioned in classical Indian literature ** Kalinga script, an ancient writin ...
), although there is no evidence to prove that he actually conquered the whole of Kalinga (the contemporary
Ganga The Ganges ( ) (in India: Ganga ( ); in Bangladesh: Padma ( )). "The Ganges Basin, known in India as the Ganga and in Bangladesh as the Padma, is an international river to which India, Bangladesh, Nepal and China are the riparian states." is ...
king Indravarman also claimed to have conquered the whole of Kalinga). Madhavaraja II may have declared independence taking advantage of Shashanka's defeat by the kings
Harsha Harshavardhana ( IAST Harṣa-vardhana; c. 590–647 CE) was a Pushyabhuti emperor who ruled northern India from 606 to 647 CE. He was the son of Prabhakaravardhana who had defeated the Alchon Huna invaders, and the younger brother of Rajyav ...
and Bhaskaravarman. It is also possible that he annexed some part of the Ganga territory, although this success must have been temporary. His inscriptions state that he performed the
ashvamedha The Ashvamedha ( sa, अश्वमेध, aśvamedha, translit-std=IAST) was a horse sacrifice ritual followed by the Śrauta tradition of Vedic religion. It was used by ancient Indian kings to prove their imperial sovereignty: a horse accomp ...
and other sacrifices, presumably to assert his independence. The inscriptions issued by Madhavaraja II in the later part of reign feature the myth of origin of the Shailodbhava dynasty. In accordance with the contemporary practices, this mythical origin may have been fabricated by a court poet after the dynasty became independent. The introductory part of these inscriptions is in verse form (instead of the prose form featured in the previous inscriptions). The style of the verse is similar to the one that features in the
Aihole inscription The Aihole Inscription, also known as the Aihole ''prashasti'', is a nineteen line Sanskrit inscription at Meguti Jain temple in Aihole, Karnataka, India. An eulogy dated 634–635 CE, it was composed by the Jain poet Ravikirti in honor of his p ...
of
Pulakeshin II Pulakeshin II (IAST: Pulakeśin, r. c. 610–642 CE) was the most famous ruler of the Chalukya dynasty of Vatapi (present-day Badami in Karnataka, India). During his reign, the Chalukya kingdom expanded to cover most of the Deccan region in p ...
(Harsha may have invaded the region after Shashanka's death, and Pulakeshin later defeated Harsha). During the reign of Madhavaraja II, around 638 CE, the Chinese pilgrim
Xuanzang Xuanzang (, ; 602–664), born Chen Hui / Chen Yi (), also known as Hiuen Tsang, was a 7th-century Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveler, and translator. He is known for the epoch-making contributions to Chinese Buddhism, the travelogue of ...
visited Kongoda (which he calls Kong-u-T'o). He described it as follows: Madhavaraja II was succeeded by his son Madhyamaraja (alias Ayashobhita II), whose inscriptions also credit him with the performance of
ashvamedha The Ashvamedha ( sa, अश्वमेध, aśvamedha, translit-std=IAST) was a horse sacrifice ritual followed by the Śrauta tradition of Vedic religion. It was used by ancient Indian kings to prove their imperial sovereignty: a horse accomp ...
and other sacrifices. Epigraphic evidence suggests that he ruled for at least 26 years (up to the end of the 7th century), and his reign was peaceful and prosperous. Madhyamaraja was succeeded by his son Dharmaraja (alias Manabhita). According to Dharmaraja's inscriptions, he defeated his elder brother Madhava (Madhavaraja III) at Phasika to gain the throne. After his defeat, Madhava fled and took asylum with king Tivara, but Dharmaraja killed both Madhava and Tivara. Dharmaraja was a strong ruler, and reigned for at least 30 years. In his Nimina (Nivina) inscription, he assumed the royal titles ''Paramabhattaraka'', ''Maharajadhiraja'', and ''Parameshvara''.


Decline

The disintegration of the Shailodbhava kingdom seems to have started during the last days of the Dharmaraja's reign. His successor was his son Madhyamaraja II (alias Ayashobhita III), who did not have an heir to succeed him. According to a later inscription issued by Madhyamaraja III, he had a paternal cousin named Allaparaja, presumably a son of Madhavaraja III. The inscription describes Allaparaja's son Tailapanibha as the
crown prince A crown prince or hereditary prince is the heir apparent to the throne in a royal or imperial monarchy. The female form of the title is crown princess, which may refer either to an heiress apparent or, especially in earlier times, to the wif ...
(''yuvaraja''). It is not known if Allaparaja or Tailapanibha ever ascended the throne: they may have died a premature death. The last known member of the dynasty was Madhyamaraja III, who was probably a son of Tailapanibha. The Shailodbhavas fell into obscurity in the 8th century. Their territory appears to have become part of the Gangas of Shvetaka, who were vassals of the Bhauma-Kara king Unmattakesharin for some time. According to a 786-77 inscription, Ranaka Vishavarnava was appointed as a feudatory of the Kongoda-mandala, which was now a province of the Bhauma-Kara kingdom. Some writers have attempted to connect the Shailodbhavas with the
Shailendra dynasty The Shailendra dynasty (, derived from Sanskrit combined words ''Śaila'' and ''Indra'', meaning "King of the Mountain", also spelled Sailendra, Syailendra or Selendra) was the name of a notable Indianised dynasty that emerged in 8th-century ...
of South-East Asia, and Shailavansha dynasty which ruled a kingdom in the present-day
Balaghat district Balaghat district is a district of Madhya Pradesh state in Central India. The town of Balaghat serves as its administrative headquarters. Balaghat is known for its tile factories, rice mills and forests. History At the beginning of the 18th cen ...
. However, these hypotheses are not supported by any concrete evidence.


Religion

The Shailodbhava rulers followed
Shaivism Shaivism (; sa, शैवसम्प्रदायः, Śaivasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the Supreme Being. One of the largest Hindu denominations, it incorporates many sub-traditions rangi ...
. Their myth of origin attributes the emergence of the dynasty's founder to
Shiva Shiva (; sa, शिव, lit=The Auspicious One, Śiva ), also known as Mahadeva (; ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐ, or Hara, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions within Hindu ...
. In addition, the Shailodbhava inscriptions begin with an invocation of Shiva, feature the Shaiva bull motif on the seal, and describe the king as ''parama-maheshvara'' (devotee of Shiva). The oldest surviving temple in
Bhubaneswar Bhubaneswar (; ) is the capital and largest city of the Indian state of Odisha. The region, especially the old town, was historically often depicted as ''Ekamra Kshetra'' (area (''kshetra'') adorned with mango trees (''ekamra'')). Bhubaneswar is ...
— the Parashurameshvara Shiva Temple — was probably built during the reign of Madhavaraja II.


List of rulers

The Shailodbhava inscriptions provide the following genealogy (titles in italic, names in
IAST The International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration (IAST) is a transliteration scheme that allows the lossless romanisation of Indic scripts as employed by Sanskrit and related Indic languages. It is based on a scheme that emerged during ...
): * Shailodbhava (mythical founder) * Raṇabhīta (alias Araṇabhīta), r. c. 6th century * ''Mahārāja Mahāsāmanta'' Mādhavarāja I (alias Sainyabhīta I or Mādhavavarman I) * ''Mahārāja'' Yaśhobhīta (alias Ayaśobhīta I); identified with Charamparāja by S. C. Behera * ''Mahārāja Mahāsāmanta'' (later ''Sakala-Kalingadhipati'') Mādhavarāja II (alias Mādhavavarman II, Mādhavendra, and Sainyabhīta II), r. c. 620-21 to 670-71 * Madhyamarāja I (alias Ayaśobhīta II), c. 670-71 to end of the 7th century * Mādhavavarman III (alias Mādhava) * ''Paramabhattaraka - Maharajadhiraja - Parameshvara'' Dharmarāja II (alias Mānabhīta), ruled till c. 726-727 * Madhyamarāja II (alias Ayaśobhīta III and Raṇakṣobha) * Allaparāja * Tailapanibha * Madhyamarāja III


Inscriptions

The following inscriptions of the Shailodbhava dynasty have been discovered:


References


Bibliography

* * *


Further reading

* {{Odisha Dynasties of India Kalinga (India)