The self-control theory of crime, often referred to as the general theory of crime, is a
criminological theory about the lack of individual
self-control
Self-control, an aspect of inhibitory control, is the ability to regulate one's emotions, thoughts, and behavior in the face of temptations and impulses. As an executive function, it is a cognitive process that is necessary for regulating one' ...
as the main factor behind
criminal behavior
In ordinary language, a crime is an unlawful act punishable by a state or other authority. The term ''crime'' does not, in modern criminal law, have any simple and universally accepted definition,Farmer, Lindsay: "Crime, definitions of", in Can ...
. The self-control theory of crime suggests that individuals who were ineffectually parented before the age of ten develop less self-control than individuals of approximately the same age who were raised with better parenting.
Research has also found that low levels of self-control are correlated with criminal and impulsive conduct.
The theory was originally developed by criminologists
Travis Hirschi and
Michael Gottfredson,
[Diksha, J., & Hirschi, T. (1990). ]
A general theory of crime
'' Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. but has since been subject to a great deal of theoretical debate and a large and growing
empirical literature.
Theory and background
Springing from interest in
bonding theory, Hirschi—in co-operation with Gottfredson—has developed the "General Theory of Crime" or ''self-control theory'' from 1990 onward.
Based on the empirical observation of the connection between criminal behavior and age,
Hirschi and Gottfredson theorized the an important factor behind
crime
In ordinary language, a crime is an unlawful act punishable by a state or other authority. The term ''crime'' does not, in modern criminal law, have any simple and universally accepted definition,Farmer, Lindsay: "Crime, definitions of", in Ca ...
is individual lack of self-control. Individual self-control improves with age as a result of many factors: changing
biology
Biology is the scientific study of life. It is a natural science with a broad scope but has several unifying themes that tie it together as a single, coherent field. For instance, all organisms are made up of cells that process hereditary i ...
through
hormonal
A hormone (from the Greek participle , "setting in motion") is a class of signaling molecules in multicellular organisms that are sent to distant organs by complex biological processes to regulate physiology and behavior. Hormones are required f ...
development,
socialization
In sociology, socialization or socialisation (see spelling differences) is the process of internalizing the norms and ideologies of society. Socialization encompasses both learning and teaching and is thus "the means by which social and cul ...
and increasing
opportunity costs of losing control. In addition, criminal acts are often markedly non-controlled; they are both
opportunistic
Opportunism is the practice of taking advantage of circumstances – with little regard for principles or with what the consequences are for others. Opportunist actions are expedient actions guided primarily by self-interested motives. The term ...
and short-sighted. It is essentially the extent to which different people are vulnerable to the temptations of the moment.
Self-control in psychology
Freud (1911, 1959) established a foundation for the concept of self-control with his "pleasure-principle" and "reality-principle". Respectively, these refer to the desire for immediate gratification and the delay of gratification. The pleasure principle drives an individual to look for pleasure and to avoid pain. However, in the process of growing up, the individual learns the necessity of enduring pain and delaying gratification because of the obstacles created by the realities of life. More recent psychological research has retained a notion of self-control as referring to an individual's decision or ability to delay immediate gratification of desires in order to reach larger alternative goals.
Acute vs. chronic low self-control
Contrary to the general theory of crime that presents low self-control as a characteristic of an individual that influences one's behavior, the criminal spin theory presents the reduction of self-control as a
phenomenological process. This process can be acute, a one-time only that is not typical to the individual, or it can develop into a chronic state, in which participation in criminal activities becomes central to the individual life. In addition, the criminal spin theory claims that such a process that leads to a state of reduced self-control can be seen in individuals, groups (e.g., group rape) of even larger social entities (e.g., local communities).
Criticisms and defense
Akers (1991) argued that a major weakness of this new theory was that Gottfredson and Hirschi did not define self-control and the tendency toward criminal behavior separately. By not deliberately operationalizing self-control traits and criminal behavior or criminal acts individually, it suggests that the concepts of low self-control and propensity for criminal behavior are one and the same. Hirschi and Gottfredson (1993) replied to Akers' argument by suggesting it was actually an indication of the consistency of the General Theory. That is, the theory is internally consistent by conceptualizing crime and deriving from that a concept of the offender's traits.
Another criticism of Gottfredson and Hirshi's self control theory is that it downplays the influences of one's peers.
Empirical support
The research community remains divided on whether the General Theory of Crime is sustainable but there is emerging confirmation of some of its predictions (e.g. LaGrange & Silverman: 1999). A number of empirical studies—including
meta-analysis
A meta-analysis is a statistical analysis that combines the results of multiple scientific studies. Meta-analyses can be performed when there are multiple scientific studies addressing the same question, with each individual study reporting me ...
—have confirmed that individual self-control is in fact a strong predictors of crime, when compared to a range of factors at various levels of analysis.
[{{cite journal , last1 = Vazsonyi , first1 = A. T., last2 = Belliston , first2 = L. M., year = 2007 , title = The Family → Low Self-Control → Deviance: A Cross-Cultural and Cross-National Test of Self-Control Theory , url = https://semanticscholar.org/paper/c86e41084e497494b93e60c07b08108ae5bbc53b, journal = Criminal Justice and Behavior , volume = 34 , issue = 4, pages = 505–530 , doi = 10.1177/0093854806292299 , s2cid = 16139503]
See also
*
Control theory (sociology)
Control theory in sociology is the idea that two control systems—inner controls and outer controls—work against our tendencies to deviate. Control theory can either be classified as centralized or decentralized. Decentralized control is co ...
*
Right realism
*
Social control theory
In criminology, social control theory proposes that exploiting the process of socialization and social learning builds self-control and reduces the inclination to indulge in behavior recognized as antisocial. It derived from functionalist theor ...
*
Reality Principle
*
Pleasure Principle
References
Criminology
Self-control