The Second Era of Northern Domination refers to the second period of Chinese rule in
Vietnamese history
The history of Vietnam can be traced back to around 20,000 years ago, as the first modern humans arrived and settled on this land, known as the Hoabinhians, which can be traced to modern-day Negritos. Archaeological findings from 1965, which are ...
, from the 1st century to 6th century AD, during which present-day northern
Vietnam
Vietnam or Viet Nam ( vi, Việt Nam, ), officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam,., group="n" is a country in Southeast Asia, at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, with an area of and population of 96 million, making i ...
(
Jiaozhi
Jiaozhi (standard Chinese, pinyin: ''Jiāozhǐ''), or Giao Chỉ (Vietnamese), was a historical region ruled by various Chinese dynasties, corresponding to present-day northern Vietnam. The kingdom of Nanyue (204–111 BC) set up the Jiaozhi Co ...
) was governed by various Chinese dynasties. This period lasted about 500 years.
History
Eastern Han dynasty
After suppressed the Trưng sisters in 44 AD, Ma Yuan continued his crackdown on the
Lac Viet
Lac is the resinous secretion of a number of species of lac insects, of which the most commonly cultivated is ''Kerria lacca''.
Cultivation begins when a farmer gets a stick that contains eggs ready to hatch and ties it to the tree to be infes ...
resistance and their society. Lac lords whom joined the Trung sisters, who had submitted or surrendered to Ma Yuan would be spared, who disobeyed will be beheaded. Direct imperial government now was imposed on the region for the first time. Some of 20,000 Chinese soldiers had settled in northern Vietnam to help rebuild the Han administration, living along with around 900,000 local people. By the second and third century, local sites and artifacts often contain both Viet and Han styles, include Han-style tomb bricks and Dong Son artifacts such as bronze drums. Chopsticks, paper, writing brushes, the concept of household, tomb,... were introduced into indigenous society (presumably included
Vietic
The Vietic languages are a branch of the Austroasiatic language family, spoken by the Vietic peoples in Laos and Vietnam. The branch was once referred to by the terms ''Việt–Mường'', ''Annamese–Muong'', and ''Vietnamuong''; the term '' ...
speakers) during the Western Han or Eastern Han period. Although had adjusted local cultures, the Chinese didn't force the locals to adopt Chinese life style. From the Han to the Tang, Imperial Chinese had supported for the political alliances with the locally based elite–the local chiefs–which were powerful and wealthy. The Chinese court often gave them official positions in order to obtain profits from them.
In 157, local leader Chu Đạt in Jiuzhen attacked and killed the Chinese magistrate, then marched north with an army of four to five thousand. The governor of Jiuzhen, Ni Shi, was killed. The Han general of Jiuzhen, Wei Lang, gathered an army and defeated Chu Đạt, beheading 2,000 rebels.
In 159 and 161, Indian merchants arrived Jiaozhi and paid tributes to the Han government.
In 166, a Roman trade mission arrived Jiaozhi, bringing tributes to the Han, which "were likely bought from local markets" of Rinan and Jiaozhi.
In 178, Wuhu people (烏滸) under
Liang Long
Liang Long or Lương Long (died 181) was the leader of a civil revolution in Jiaozhi province (modern-day Northern Vietnam and Guangxi) against the Chinese Eastern Han dynasty rule during the late 2nd century AD.
Liang Long originally was a chie ...
sparked a revolt against the Han in Hepu and Jiaozhi. Liang Long spread his revolt to all northern Vietnam, Guangxi and central Vietnam as well, attracting all non-Chinese ethnic groups in Jiaozhi to join. In 181, the Han empire sent general Zhu Juan to deal with the revolt. In June 181 Liang Long was captured and beheaded, and his rebellion was suppressed.
Introduced by Indian merchants via sea, by late Han period,
Buddhism
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religions, Indian religion or Indian philosophy#Buddhist philosophy, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha. ...
quickly became the most predominant religion in Northern Vietnam, whereas the Dâu Temple (circa. 2nd century AD) was the first Buddhist temple in Vietnam. In 177,
Shi Xie
Shi Xie () (137–226), courtesy name Weiyan, also rendered as Sĩ Nhiếp in Vietnamese, was a Chinese military general, politician, and warlord who lived during the Eastern Han dynasty and early Three Kingdoms period of China. He served as th ...
became the prefect of Jiaozhi province.
In 100,
Cham people
The Cham (Cham: ''Čaṃ'') or Champa people (Cham: , ''Urang Campa''; vi, Người Chăm or ; km, ជនជាតិចាម, ) are an Austronesian ethnic group. From the 2nd century to 1832 the Cham populated Champa, a contiguous territor ...
in Xianglin (Tượng Lâm) county (near modern-day
Huế
Huế () is the capital of Thừa Thiên Huế province in central Vietnam and was the capital of Đàng Trong from 1738 to 1775 and of Vietnam during the Nguyễn dynasty from 1802 to 1945. The city served as the old Imperial City and admi ...
) revolted against the Han rule due to high taxes. The Cham plundered and burned down the Han centers. The Han respond by putting down the rebellion, executed their leaders and granting Xianglin a two-year tax respite. In 136 and 144, Cham people again launched another two rebellions which provoked mutinies in the imperial army from Jiaozhi and Jiuzhen, then rebellion in Jiaozhi. The governor of Jiaozhi, according to Kiernan, "lured them to surrender" with "enticing words."
In 192,
Cham people
The Cham (Cham: ''Čaṃ'') or Champa people (Cham: , ''Urang Campa''; vi, Người Chăm or ; km, ជនជាតិចាម, ) are an Austronesian ethnic group. From the 2nd century to 1832 the Cham populated Champa, a contiguous territor ...
in Tượng Lâm led by
Khu Liên
Sri Mara (Cham: ꨦꨴꨫ ꨠꨩꨣ, Khmer: ឝ្រី មារ, th, ศรีมาระ fl. 137 or 192 AD) was the founder of the kingdom of Champa.
Biography
He is known in Chinese records as Qū Lián ( 區連), or Zhulian, which in Viet ...
successful revolted against the Han dynasty. Khu Liên found the independent kingdom of
Lâm Ấp
Lâm Ấp (Vietnamese pronunciation of Middle Chinese 林邑 *''liɪm ʔˠiɪp̚'', > standard Chinese: Linyi) was a kingdom located in central Vietnam that existed from around 192 AD to 629 AD in what is today central Vietnam, and was one of th ...
.
Three Kingdoms era
Sĩ Nhiếp (Shi Xie) was the governor of Jiaozhi at the end of the Eastern Han dynasty. When China plunged into civil war, Si Nhiep ruled Jiaozhi as an independent warlord from 187 to 226. He pledged allegiance to Sun Quan forces in 210 and later became a vassal of Eastern Wu, himself received the title "Marquis of Longbian". In 227, Eastern Wu forces killed his son Shi Hui (士徽), ending the Shi rule of Jiaozhi.
When the Eastern Han dynasty split into the
Three Kingdoms
The Three Kingdoms () from 220 to 280 AD was the tripartite division of China among the dynastic states of Cao Wei, Shu Han, and Eastern Wu. The Three Kingdoms period was preceded by the Eastern Han dynasty and was followed by the West ...
in 220, Jiaozhi was under the control of the state of Wu. In 226 Sun Quan divided Jiaozhi into two separated provinces, Chiao-chou (included northern Vietnam and small portion of Hepu) and Kuangchou. The Wu regime was harsh. Turmoil plagued the southern commanderies by the mid third century. In 231, people in Jiuzhen revolted but was "pacified" by a Wu general. In 248,
Lâm Ấp
Lâm Ấp (Vietnamese pronunciation of Middle Chinese 林邑 *''liɪm ʔˠiɪp̚'', > standard Chinese: Linyi) was a kingdom located in central Vietnam that existed from around 192 AD to 629 AD in what is today central Vietnam, and was one of th ...
forces invaded from the south, seized most of Rinan, and marched on into Jiuzhen, provoking major uprisings there and in Jiaozhi. In Jiuzhen, a Lạc Việt woman named Triệu Ẩu (
Lady Triệu
Lady Triệu ( vi, Bà Triệu, , Chữ Nôm: 226 - 248) or Triệu Ẩu (, Chữ Hán: ); was a warrior in 3rd century Vietnam who managed, for a time, to resist the rule of the Chinese Eastern Wu dynasty. She is also called , although her ac ...
) led a rebellion against the Wu in the same year, but was suppressed by Lu Yin.
Jin-Wu war
In 263, Lu Hung (呂興), a prefecture in Jiaozhou, gained supports from local people and soldiers, murdered Wu administrators Sun Hsu (孫諝) and Teng Hsun (鄧荀), then sent envoys to
Jin dynasty (266–420)
The Jin dynasty (; ) or the Jin Empire, sometimes distinguished as the (司馬晉) or the (兩晉), was an imperial dynasty of China that existed from 266 to 420. It was founded by Sima Yan (Emperor Wu), eldest son of Sima Zhao, who had pr ...
replaced Cao Wei, immediately sent Yang Chi to annex Jiaozhou with local supports. In 268, Wu sent two generals, Liu Chun and Hsiu Tse to reconquer Jiaozhou, but were repelled by Jin armies. In 270 Jin and Wu armies clashed in
Hepu
Hepu (), alternately romanized as Hoppo, Hopu or Hop'u, is a county under the administration of Beihai City in southeastern Guangxi, China. It borders Lianjiang (Guangdong) to the southeast, Bobai County to the northeast, the Gulf of Tonkin to th ...
. The Wu general, Tao Huang contacted with Luong Ky, a local commander collaborating with the Jin and convinced him to side with the Wu, enabled the Wu army to recapture Jiaozhi's ports and main towns in 271. Fighting continued in the countryside until 280, when Jin destroyed Wu, reunifying China. The war devastated the region as number of households in northern Vietnam fell from 64,700 in 140 AD to around 25,600 by the Western Jin dynasty period.
Jin dynasty and Southern dynasties
In the early period of Jin dynasty, the imperial court favored the southern trade networks with prosperity kingdoms of
Funan
Funan (; km, ហ៊្វូណន, ; vi, Phù Nam, Chữ Hán: ) was the name given by Chinese cartographers, geographers and writers to an ancient Indianized state—or, rather a loose network of states ''(Mandala)''—located in mainla ...
and
Lâm Ấp
Lâm Ấp (Vietnamese pronunciation of Middle Chinese 林邑 *''liɪm ʔˠiɪp̚'', > standard Chinese: Linyi) was a kingdom located in central Vietnam that existed from around 192 AD to 629 AD in what is today central Vietnam, and was one of th ...
. Along with this brief peacetime "boom" in the southern trade, Jiaozhi and Jiuzhen enjoyed some autonomy from China until
the 320s. In 312 rebels and imperial army fought each other with ferocity over Jiaozhi and Jiuzhen. Frustrated by the difficulty of trade,
Lâm Ấp
Lâm Ấp (Vietnamese pronunciation of Middle Chinese 林邑 *''liɪm ʔˠiɪp̚'', > standard Chinese: Linyi) was a kingdom located in central Vietnam that existed from around 192 AD to 629 AD in what is today central Vietnam, and was one of th ...
itself resorted from 323 to seaborne raids on northern ports in Jiaozhou. Though defeated in 399, Lâm Ấp continued its raids on Jiaozhi and Jiuzhen for two decades. A Chinese rebel army from
Zhejiang
Zhejiang ( or , ; , Chinese postal romanization, also romanized as Chekiang) is an East China, eastern, coastal Provinces of China, province of the People's Republic of China. Its capital and largest city is Hangzhou, and other notable citie ...
briefly seized Jiaozhi's capital in 411. In 432, Phạm Dương Mại II of Lâm Ấp sent an embassy to the court of
Liu Song
Song, known as Liu Song (), Former Song (前宋) or Song of (the) Southern Dynasty (南朝宋) in historiography, was an imperial dynasty of China and the first of the four Southern dynasties during the Northern and Southern dynasties period. ...
asking for the appointment of Prefect of Jiao, which was declined.
During the Jin dynasty and
Six dynasties
Six Dynasties (; 220–589 or 222–589) is a collective term for six Han-ruled Chinese dynasties that existed from the early 3rd century AD to the late 6th century AD. The Six Dynasties period overlapped with the era of the Sixteen Kingdoms ...
period of China, the Li-Lao people extended their territories right along the south coast of modern
Guangdong
Guangdong (, ), alternatively romanized as Canton or Kwangtung, is a coastal province in South China on the north shore of the South China Sea. The capital of the province is Guangzhou. With a population of 126.01 million (as of 2020) ...
and Guangxi, in a swath of land to the east of the
Red River Delta
The Red River Delta or Hong River Delta ( vi, Châu thổ sông Hồng) is the flat low-lying plain formed by the Red River and its distributaries merging with the Thái Bình River in northern Vietnam. ''Hồng'' (紅) is a Sino-Vietnamese word ...
and south and west of the Pearl River Delta, occupied the overland roads between Guangzhou and Jiaozhou. The people of Li-Lao country put anyone traveled through their territories in dangers.
Rebellions broke out in Jiaozhou from 468 to 485, and in 506 and 515 under
Liang dynasty
The Liang dynasty (), alternatively known as the Southern Liang () in historiography, was an imperial dynasty of China and the third of the four Southern dynasties during the Northern and Southern dynasties period. It was preceded by the South ...
.
In 541, Lý Bôn, a leader of the Li clan which had Sinitic ancestry, revolted against the Liang. In 544 he defeated the Liang and proclaimed himself ''Emperor of Nán Yuè'' with reign era ''Thiên-đức''. He named the new kingdom "Vạn Xuân" (萬春, "Eternal Spring"). Jiaozhou briefly became independence from the Chinese dynasties. In 545, Chen Baxian led the Liang army attack Jiaozhou, forced Lý Bôn fled west into the mountains above the Red River, where he was killed by Lao highlanders in 548.
Culture
Due to the political unstable of the Chinese empire from 3rd to 6th century, much of the Vietnamese countryside were indirectly ruled, and indigenous customs and gender relations persisted. Women played important roles in indigenous religious rites, including water rituals. International trade through
Maritime Silk Road
The Maritime Silk Road or Maritime Silk Route is the Maritime history, maritime section of the historic Silk Road that connected Southeast Asia, China, the Indian subcontinent, the Arabian peninsula, Somalia, Egypt and Europe. It began by the 2n ...
from late AD 100s to 500s brought Dong Sonbronze drums from northern Vietnam to far as eastern Indonesia, Papua and the
Moluccas
The Maluku Islands (; Indonesian: ''Kepulauan Maluku'') or the Moluccas () are an archipelago in the east of Indonesia. Tectonically they are located on the Halmahera Plate within the Molucca Sea Collision Zone. Geographically they are located ...
. Buddhists from India, known to the Chinese as ''Hu'', had arrived in Vietnam in AD 100s. Buddhism flourished within the region under Shi Xie. In contrast to
Confucianism
Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China. Variously described as tradition, a philosophy, a religion, a humanistic or rationalistic religion, a way of governing, or a ...
, Buddhism had deep roots in the Vietnamese psyche. Persian and Sogdian merchants also traveled to the Vietnamese coast; the region was home of Kang Senghui, a Sogdian Buddhist monk who translated Buddhist texts into Chinese.
Uprisings
Local rebellions were organized by:
* Chu Đạt 156–160
* Lương Long 178–181
*
Khu Liên
Sri Mara (Cham: ꨦꨴꨫ ꨠꨩꨣ, Khmer: ឝ្រី មារ, th, ศรีมาระ fl. 137 or 192 AD) was the founder of the kingdom of Champa.
Biography
He is known in Chinese records as Qū Lián ( 區連), or Zhulian, which in Viet ...