![SeabedScouringByRidge1](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/SeabedScouringByRidge1.svg)
Seabed gouging by ice is a process that occurs when floating ice features (typically
iceberg
An iceberg is a piece of freshwater ice more than 15 m long that has broken off a glacier or an ice shelf and is floating freely in open (salt) water. Smaller chunks of floating glacially-derived ice are called "growlers" or "bergy bits". The ...
s and
sea ice ridges) drift into shallower areas and their keel comes into contact with the
seabed
The seabed (also known as the seafloor, sea floor, ocean floor, and ocean bottom) is the bottom of the ocean. All floors of the ocean are known as 'seabeds'.
The structure of the seabed of the global ocean is governed by plate tectonics. Most of ...
.
[King 2011][Palmer & Been 2011][Barrette 2011] As they keep drifting, they produce long, narrow furrows most often called ''gouges'', or ''scours''.
[Wadhams 2000, p. 72][Weeks 2010, Ch. 13] This phenomenon is common in offshore environments where ice is known to exist. Although it also occurs in rivers and lakes,
[Noble and Comfort 1982][Grass 1984] it appears to be better documented from oceans and sea expanses.
[Palmer & Been 2011][Wadhams 2000, p. 72][Weeks 2010, Ch. 13]
Seabed scours produced via this mechanism should not be confused with
strudel scours. These result from spring run-off water flowing onto the surface of a given sea ice expanse, which eventually drains away through cracks, seal breathing holes, etc. The resulting turbulence is strong enough to carve a depression into the seabed. Seabed scouring by ice should also be distinguished from another scouring mechanism: the erosion of the sediments around a structure due to water currents, a well known issue in ocean engineering and river hydraulics
[See Annandale 2006, for instance] – see
bridge scour
Bridge scour is the removal of sediment such as sand and gravel from around bridge abutments or piers. Hydrodynamic scour, caused by fast flowing water, can carve out ''scour holes'', compromising the integrity of a structure.
In the United Stat ...
.
Historical perspective and relevance
It appears Charles Darwin speculated in 1855 about the possibility that icebergs could gouge the seabed as they drifted across isobaths.
[Weeks 2010, p. 391] Some discussion on the involvement of sea ice was brought up in the 1920s, but overall this phenomenon remained poorly studied by the scientific community up to the 1970s. At that time, ship-borne sidescan sonar surveys in the Canadian Beaufort Sea began to gather actual evidence of this mechanism. Seabed gouges were subsequently observed further north, in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, and in the Russian Arctic as well.
Throughout that decade, seabed gouging by ice was investigated extensively.
What sparked the sudden interest for this phenomenon was the discovery of oil near Alaska's northern coastlines, and two related factors:
1) the prospect that oilfields could abound in these waters, and 2) a consideration that
submarine pipeline
A submarine pipeline (also known as marine, subsea or offshore pipeline) is a pipeline that is laid on the seabed or below it inside a trench.Dean, p. 338-340Gerwick, p. 583-585 In some cases, the pipeline is mostly on-land but in places it crosse ...
s would be involved in future production developments, as this appeared to be the most practical approach to bring this resource to the shore. Since then, means of protecting these structures against ice action became an important concern.
[Pilkington and Marcellus 1981][Woodworth-Lynas et al. 1985][Woodworth-Lynas et al. 1996][Clark et al. 1987] An
oil spill
An oil spill is the release of a liquid petroleum hydrocarbon into the environment, especially the marine ecosystem, due to human activity, and is a form of pollution. The term is usually given to marine oil spills, where oil is released into th ...
in this environment would be problematic in terms of detection and clean-up.
[McHale et al. 2000]
Scientists in fields of research other than offshore engineering have also addressed seabed gouging. For instance, biologists have linked regions of the seabed reshaped by seabed gouging by ice to the formation of black pools, seabed depressions filled with
anoxic
The term anoxia means a total depletion in the level of oxygen, an extreme form of hypoxia or "low oxygen". The terms anoxia and hypoxia are used in various contexts:
* Anoxic waters, sea water, fresh water or groundwater that are depleted of diss ...
high-salinity water which are death traps for small marine organisms.
[Kvitek et al. 1998] However, much of it appears to have been documented from an offshore engineering perspective, for the purpose of oil exploration.
[Weeks 2010, p. 403]
Seabed survey for gouges
![Echo Sounding USN](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Echo_Sounding_USN.jpg)
Seabed gouging by ice is an eminently discreet phenomenon: little sign of it can be observed from above the water surface – the odd evidence includes sea floor sediments incorporated into the ice.
Information of interest on these gouges includes: depth, width, length and orientation.
[Sonnichsen & King 2011, for instance] Gouging frequency – the number of gouges produced at a given location per unit time – is another important parameter. This kind of information has been gathered by means of seabed mapping with ship-borne instrumentation, typically a
fathometer
Echo sounding or depth sounding is the use of sonar for ranging, normally to determine the depth of water (bathymetry). It involves transmitting acoustic waves into water and recording the time interval between emission and return of a pulse; ...
: echo sounding devices such as a
side-scan and a multi-beam
sonar
Sonar (sound navigation and ranging or sonic navigation and ranging) is a technique that uses sound propagation (usually underwater, as in submarine navigation) to navigation, navigate, measure distances (ranging), communicate with or detect o ...
systems.
[Weeks 2010, p. 392] Repetitive mapping involves repeating these surveys a number of times, at an interval ranging from a few to several years, as a means of estimating gouging frequency.
[Blasco et al. 1998][Sonnichsen et al. 2005]
Gouge characteristics
Seabed gouges produced by drifting ice features can be many kilometers in length. In Northern Canada and Alaska, gouge depths may reach .
[Been et al. 2008] Most, however, do not exceed 1 meter (3 feet). Anything deeper than 2 meters is referred to by the offshore engineering community as an ''extreme event''. Gouge widths range from a few meters to a few hundred meters.
[Héquette et al. 2008][Oickle et al. 2008] The maximum water depths at which gouges have been reported range from , northwest of
Svalbard
Svalbard ( , ), also known as Spitsbergen, or Spitzbergen, is a Norwegian archipelago in the Arctic Ocean. North of mainland Europe, it is about midway between the northern coast of Norway and the North Pole. The islands of the group range ...
in the Arctic Ocean.
[Weeks 2010, p. 395] These are thought to be remnant traces left by icebergs during the
Pleistocene
The Pleistocene ( , often referred to as the ''Ice age'') is the geological Epoch (geology), epoch that lasted from about 2,580,000 to 11,700 years ago, spanning the Earth's most recent period of repeated glaciations. Before a change was fina ...
, thousands of years ago, when the sea level was lower than what it is today. In the
Beaufort Sea
The Beaufort Sea (; french: Mer de Beaufort, Iñupiaq: ''Taġiuq'') is a marginal sea of the Arctic Ocean, located north of the Northwest Territories, the Yukon, and Alaska, and west of Canada's Arctic islands. The sea is named after Sir Fr ...
, Northern Canada, a 50 km (30 mi) long gouge was shown to exist, with a maximum depth of and in water depths ranging from .
[Blasco et al. 1998] The gouge is not always straight but varies in orientation. This event is thought to be about 2000 years old. Recent episodes of grounding, gouging and fragmentation of large Antarctic icebergs have been observed to produce powerful hydroacoustic and seismic signals that further illuminate the dynamics of the process.
[Martin et al. 2010]
The ice features
In the offshore environment, the gouging features are made up of two kinds of ice:
glacial ice
A glacier (; ) is a persistent body of dense ice that is constantly moving under its own weight. A glacier forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its Ablation#Glaciology, ablation over many years, often Century, centuries. It acquires dis ...
and
sea ice
Sea ice arises as seawater freezes. Because ice is less dense than water, it floats on the ocean's surface (as does fresh water ice, which has an even lower density). Sea ice covers about 7% of the Earth's surface and about 12% of the world's oce ...
.
Glacial ice
Physically and mechanically,
glacial ice
A glacier (; ) is a persistent body of dense ice that is constantly moving under its own weight. A glacier forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its Ablation#Glaciology, ablation over many years, often Century, centuries. It acquires dis ...
is akin to lake ice, river ice and
icicle
An icicle is a spike of ice formed when water falling from an object freezes.
Formation and dynamics
Icicles can form during bright, sunny, but subfreezing weather, when ice or snow melted by sunlight or some other heat source (such as ...
s.
[Hobbs 1974] The reason is that they all form from
freshwater
Fresh water or freshwater is any naturally occurring liquid or frozen water containing low concentrations of dissolved salts and other total dissolved solids. Although the term specifically excludes seawater and brackish water, it does include ...
(non saline water).
Ice sheet
In glaciology, an ice sheet, also known as a continental glacier, is a mass of glacial ice that covers surrounding terrain and is greater than . The only current ice sheets are in Antarctica and Greenland; during the Last Glacial Period at Las ...
s,
ice cap
In glaciology, an ice cap is a mass of ice that covers less than of land area (usually covering a highland area). Larger ice masses covering more than are termed ice sheets.
Description
Ice caps are not constrained by topographical features ...
s and
glacier
A glacier (; ) is a persistent body of dense ice that is constantly moving under its own weight. A glacier forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its Ablation#Glaciology, ablation over many years, often Century, centuries. It acquires dis ...
s essentially consist of
glacial ice
A glacier (; ) is a persistent body of dense ice that is constantly moving under its own weight. A glacier forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its Ablation#Glaciology, ablation over many years, often Century, centuries. It acquires dis ...
. Since glacial ice spreads sideways and down-slope (as a result of gravity),
[By means of a mechanism known as creep.] in some areas this ice reaches the coastline. Where this happens, depending on topography, the ice may break up into pieces that fall in the sea, a mechanism called
ice calving
Ice calving, also known as glacier calving or iceberg calving, is the breaking of ice chunks from the edge of a glacier.Essentials of Geology, 3rd edition, Stephen Marshak It is a form of ice ablation or ice disruption. It is the sudden release ...
, and drift away. Alternatively, ice sheets may spread offshore into extensive floating ice platforms called
ice shelves
An ice shelf is a large floating platform of ice that forms where a glacier or ice sheet flows down to a coastline and onto the ocean surface. Ice shelves are only found in Antarctica, Greenland, Northern Canada, and the Russian Arctic. The b ...
, which can ultimately also calve. The features produced by these calving processes are known as
iceberg
An iceberg is a piece of freshwater ice more than 15 m long that has broken off a glacier or an ice shelf and is floating freely in open (salt) water. Smaller chunks of floating glacially-derived ice are called "growlers" or "bergy bits". The ...
s and may range in size from meter to kilometer scale. The very large ones, referred to as ''ice islands'',
[Weeks 2010, p. 399] are typically tabular in shape. These may be responsible for extreme gouging events.
Sea ice
Sea ice
Sea ice arises as seawater freezes. Because ice is less dense than water, it floats on the ocean's surface (as does fresh water ice, which has an even lower density). Sea ice covers about 7% of the Earth's surface and about 12% of the world's oce ...
is the outcome of freezing
seawater
Seawater, or salt water, is water from a sea or ocean. On average, seawater in the world's oceans has a salinity of about 3.5% (35 g/L, 35 ppt, 600 mM). This means that every kilogram (roughly one liter by volume) of seawater has appro ...
. It is porous and mechanically weaker than
glacial ice
A glacier (; ) is a persistent body of dense ice that is constantly moving under its own weight. A glacier forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its Ablation#Glaciology, ablation over many years, often Century, centuries. It acquires dis ...
. Sea ice dynamics are highly complex.
[Haas 2003][Weeks 2010, ch. 12] Driven by winds and currents, sea ice may ultimately develop into
pressure ridges, a pile-up of ice fragments, or ''rubble'', making up long, linear features. These are a very common source of seabed gouges.
Pressure ridges are often enclosed inside expanses of drifting pack ice, such that gouging activity from sea ice ridge keels is closely related with pack ice motion.
Stamukhi are also pile-ups of broken sea ice but they are grounded and are therefore relatively stationary. They result from the interaction between
fast ice
Fast ice (also called ''land-fast ice'', ''landfast ice'', and ''shore-fast ice'') is sea ice that is "fastened" to the coastline, to the sea floor along shoals or to grounded icebergs.Leppäranta, M. 2011. The Drift of Sea Ice. Berlin: Springer ...
and the drifting pack ice. Stamukhi can penetrate the seabed to a considerable depth, and this also poses a risk to
subsea pipelines at shore approaches.
Gouging dynamics
Keel reaction
Because of the differences in the nature of
glacial ice
A glacier (; ) is a persistent body of dense ice that is constantly moving under its own weight. A glacier forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its Ablation#Glaciology, ablation over many years, often Century, centuries. It acquires dis ...
and
pressure ridges, gouging events from these two types of ice are also different. In both cases, the ice-soil interface is expected to retain a certain equilibrium angle, called the ''attack angle'', during which the gouging process achieves a ''steady state''.
Iceberg
An iceberg is a piece of freshwater ice more than 15 m long that has broken off a glacier or an ice shelf and is floating freely in open (salt) water. Smaller chunks of floating glacially-derived ice are called "growlers" or "bergy bits". The ...
s may adjust to this angle by rotation. Sea ice ridges may do so through the rearrangement of the rubble at the keel-seabed interface or through keel failure.
[Croasdale et al. 2005]
Seabed reaction
Seabed reaction to the gouging process depends on the properties of both the ice and the seabed. Assuming the former is stronger than the latter, and the ice driving force is sufficient, a gouge will form in the seabed. Three zones within the seabed are distinguished on the basis of soil response.
[Palmer et al. 1990][Palmer 1997][Løset et al. 2006][Nobahar et al. 2007] ''Zone 1'' is the gouge depth, where the soil has been displaced by the ice feature and remobilized into side berms and front mound ahead of the ice-seabed interface. ''Zone 2'' is where the soil undergoes some displacement. In ''Zone 3'', little or no displacement takes place, but stresses of an elastic nature are transmitted from the zone above.
Arctic offshore oil & gas
The area north of the
Arctic Circle
The Arctic Circle is one of the two polar circles, and the most northerly of the five major circles of latitude as shown on maps of Earth. Its southern equivalent is the Antarctic Circle.
The Arctic Circle marks the southernmost latitude at w ...
may hold a significant amount of undiscovered oil and gas, up to 13% and 30%, respectively, according to the
USGS
The United States Geological Survey (USGS), formerly simply known as the Geological Survey, is a scientific agency of the United States government. The scientists of the USGS study the landscape of the United States, its natural resources, a ...
.
[Gautier et al. 2009] This resource probably lies in
continental shelves
A continental shelf is a portion of a continent that is submerged under an area of relatively shallow water, known as a shelf sea. Much of these shelves were exposed by drops in sea level during glacial periods. The shelf surrounding an island ...
at water depths below , which makes up about one third of that area. Also, more than 400 oil and gas fields had been identified up to 2007, most of them in Northern Russia and on the North Slope of Alaska.
A challenge for offshore engineering
Access poses a challenge.
[Mørk 2007] An offshore production scheme necessarily aims for safe and economical operation throughout the year and the full lifespan of the project.
Offshore production developments often consist of installations on the seabed itself, away from sea surface hazards (wind, waves, ice). In shallower waters, the production platform may rest directly on the seabed. Either way, if these installations include a submarine pipeline to
deliver this resource to the shoreline, a substantial portion of its length could be exposed to gouging events.
[Palmer & Tung 2012]
Protecting submarine pipelines from gouging events
According to recent reviews on the subject,
[Cardenal et al. 2022] adequate protection against gouging activity may be achieved through pipeline burial. Placing the pipeline in Zone 3 would be the safest option, but the costs for this option are deemed prohibitive. Instead, current design philosophy envisages pipe location within Zone 2, which is still below the gouge depth, but where the soil is expected to move as a result of a gouging event above it. This implies that the pipeline must undergo a certain amount of
bending
In applied mechanics, bending (also known as flexure) characterizes the behavior of a slender structural element subjected to an external load applied perpendicularly to a longitudinal axis of the element.
The structural element is assumed to ...
and consequent deformation, or
strain
Strain may refer to:
Science and technology
* Strain (biology), variants of plants, viruses or bacteria; or an inbred animal used for experimental purposes
* Strain (chemistry), a chemical stress of a molecule
* Strain (injury), an injury to a mu ...
, of the pipeline wall. For the currently operating North Star production site, “
e minimum pipeline depth of cover (original undisturbed seabed to top of pipe) to resist ice keel loads was calculated based on limit state design procedures for pipe bending”.
[Lanan et al. 2011, p. 3] For that particular site, “ seabed soil displacements beneath the maximum ice keel gouge depth (3.5 ft) yielded a 7-ft minimum depth of cover for pipe bending strains up to 1.4%”.
This design philosophy must contend with at least three sources of uncertainty:
*''The maximum expected gouge depth'': Based on the past gouging regime (gouge depth distribution and gouging frequency, especially), one must rely on probability analyses to estimate the likely maximum gouge depth at the planned pipeline deployment site during its full operational lifespan (e.g. 20–40 years). This type of analysis is not unusual in civil engineering – textbooks are written on this subject.
[''e.g.'' Jordaan 2005] But changing climate patterns
[Comiso 2002][Kubat et al. 2006] are an added source of uncertainty, since it is uncertain how climate change will affect future gouging regimes.
*''Subgouge deformation'': Seabed gouging by ice is a relatively complex phenomenon, depending on a number of parameters (keel dimensions and properties, soil response, etc.). Even if the maximum gouge depth can be ascertained, it is difficult to assess the amount of soil displacement below it, a parameter considered when establishing what a safe pipeline burial depth should be.
*''Pipeline strain'': Another source of uncertainty is the amount of strain that the pipeline is likely to see at a given depth below the gouge.
Environmental issues
Oil and gas developments in Arctic waters must address environmental concerns through proper contingency plans. Parts of the Arctic are covered with ice most of the year. During the winter months, darkness prevails. If an
oil spill
An oil spill is the release of a liquid petroleum hydrocarbon into the environment, especially the marine ecosystem, due to human activity, and is a form of pollution. The term is usually given to marine oil spills, where oil is released into th ...
occurs, it may go undetected for several months.
[Timco & Davies 1996][DF Dickins 2000] Assuming this spill is located, clean-up procedures are likely to be impeded by ice cover. Furthermore, these are remote locations, such that logistical issues would come into play.
Arctic ecosystems are sensitive – a timely response is required to mitigate the consequences of an oil spill.
See also
*
Drift ice
Drift ice, also called brash ice, is sea ice that is not attached to the shoreline or any other fixed object (shoals, grounded icebergs, etc.).Leppäranta, M. 2011. The Drift of Sea Ice. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. Unlike fast ice, which is "fasten ...
*
Iceberg
An iceberg is a piece of freshwater ice more than 15 m long that has broken off a glacier or an ice shelf and is floating freely in open (salt) water. Smaller chunks of floating glacially-derived ice are called "growlers" or "bergy bits". The ...
*
Offshore geotechnical engineering
Offshore geotechnical engineering is a sub-field of geotechnical engineering. It is concerned with foundation design, construction, maintenance and decommissioning for human-made structures in the sea.Dean, p. 1 Oil platforms, artificial island ...
*
Submarine pipeline
A submarine pipeline (also known as marine, subsea or offshore pipeline) is a pipeline that is laid on the seabed or below it inside a trench.Dean, p. 338-340Gerwick, p. 583-585 In some cases, the pipeline is mostly on-land but in places it crosse ...
*
Pressure ridge (ice)
A pressure ridge, when consisting of ice, is a linear pile-up of sea ice fragments formed in pack ice by accumulation in the convergence between floes.
Such a pressure ridge develops in an ice cover as a result of a stress regime established wi ...
*
Stamukha
A stamukha (plural: ''stamukhi''; from Russian стамуха) is a grounded accumulation of sea ice rubble that typically develops along the boundary between fast ice and the drifting pack ice, or becomes incorporated into the fast ice.Barne ...
*
Strudel (ice)
A strudel (plural: strudel)https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Strudel. This plural form was recommended, and used, by E. Reimnitz and his colleagues. is a vertical hole in sea ice through which downward jet-like, buoyancy-driven drainage of floo ...
*
Bloop
Bloop was an ultra-low-frequency, high amplitude underwater sound detected by the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) in 1997. By 2012, earlier speculation that the sound originated from a marine animal was replaced by NOA ...
References
Bibliography
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*
*Been K., Sancio R.B., Ahrabian D., Deltares W.V.K., Croasdale K., Palmer A. (2008) Subscour displacement in clays from physical tests, ''Proceedings of the 5th International Pipeline Conference (IPC)'', American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), Calgary, Canada.
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*
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*
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*
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*
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*
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*
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*
*
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*
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*
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*
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{{refend
Sea ice
Glaciology
Oceanography