Scythian Cultures

The Scytho-Siberian world was an archaeological horizon which flourished across the entire Eurasian Steppe during the Iron Age from approximately the 9th century BC to the 2nd century AD. It included the Scythian, Sauromatian and Sarmatian cultures of Eastern Europe, the Saka-Massagetae and Tasmola cultures of Central Asia, and the Aldy-Bel, Pazyryk and Tagar cultures of south Siberia.

The Scythian-Siberian world was characterized by the Scythian triad, which are similar, yet not identical, styles of weapons, horses' bridles, and jewelry and decorative art. The question of how related these cultures were is disputed among scholars. Its peoples were of diverse origins, and included not just Scythians, from which the cultures are named, but other peoples as well, such as the Cimmerians, Massagetae, Saka, Sarmatians, and obscure forest steppe populations. Mostly speakers of the Scythian branch of the Iranian languages, all of these peoples are sometimes collectively referred to as ''Scythians'', Scytho-Siberians, Early Nomads, or Iron Age Nomads.

Origins and spread

The Scytho-Siberian world emerged on the Eurasian Steppe at the dawn of the Iron Age in the early 1st millennium BC. Its origins has long been a source of debate among archaeologists. The Pontic–Caspian steppe was initially thought to have been their place of origin, until the Soviet archaeologist Aleksey Terenozhkin suggested a Central Asian origin.

Recent excavations at Arzhan in Tuva, Russia have uncovered the earliest Scythian-style kurgan yet found. Similarly the earliest examples of the animal style art which would later characterize the Scytho-Siberian cultures have been found near the upper Yenisei River and North China, dating to the 10th century BC. Based on these finds, it has been suggested that the Scytho-Siberian world emerged at an early period in southern Siberia. It is probably in this area the Scythian way of life initially developed. Recent genetic studies have concluded that the Scythians formed from European-related groups of the Yamnaya culture and East Asian/Siberian groups during the Bronze Age and early Iron Age.

The Scytho-Siberian world quickly came to stretch from the Pannonian Basin in the west to the Altai Mountains in the east. There were however significant cultural differences between east and west. Over time they came in contact with other ancient civilizations, such as Assyria, Greece and Persia. In the late 1st millennium BC, peoples belonging to the Scytho-Siberian world expanded into Iran (Sakastan), India (Indo-Scythians) and the Tarim Basin. In the early centuries AD the western part of the Scytho-Siberian world came under pressure from the Goths and other Germanic peoples. The end of the Scythian period in archaeology has been set at approximately the 2nd century AD.

Recent archeological and genetic data confirmed that Western and Eastern Scythians of the 1st millennium BC originated independently, but both formed from a combination of a Yamnaya-related ancestry component from the area of the European steppes, and an East Asian-related component most closely corresponding to the modern North Siberian Nganasan people of the lower Yenesei.."Genomic inference reveals that Scythians in the east and the west of the steppe zone can best be described as a mixture of Yamnaya-related ancestry and an East Asian component. Demographic modelling suggests independent origins for eastern and western groups with ongoing gene-flow between them, plausibly explaining the striking uniformity of their material culture. We also find evidence that significant gene-flow from east to west Eurasia must have occurred early during the Iron Age." and "The blend of EHG uropean hunter-gathererand Caucasian elements in carriers of the Yamnaya culture was formed on the European steppe and exported into Central Asia and Siberia" Furthermore, archaeological evidence now tends to suggest that the origins of the Scytho-Siberian world, characterized by its kurgans burial mounds and its ''Animal style'' of the 1st millennium BC, are to be found among Eastern Scythians rather than their Western counterparts: eastern kurgans are older than western ones (such as the Altaic kurgan Arzhan 1 in Tuva), and elements of the ''Animal style'' are first attested in areas of the Yenisei river and modern-day China in the 10th century BC.. "The origin of the widespread Scythian culture has long been debated in Eurasian archaeology. The northern Black Sea steppe was originally considered the homeland and centre of the Scythians until Terenozhkin formulated the hypothesis of a Central Asian origin. On the other hand, evidence supporting an east Eurasian origin includes the kurgan Arzhan 1 in Tuva, which is considered the earliest Scythian kurgan. Dating of additional burial sites situated in east and west Eurasia confirmed eastern kurgans as older than their western counterparts. Additionally, elements of the characteristic ‘Animal Style' dated to the tenth century BC were found in the region of the Yenisei river and modern-day China, supporting the early presence of Scythian culture in the East." The rapid spread of Scytho-Siberian world, from the Eastern Scythians to the Western Scythians, is also confirmed by significant east-to-west gene flow across the steppes during the 1st millennium BC.

Peoples

Ethnicity

The peoples of the Scytho-Siberian world are mentioned by contemporary Persian and Greek historians. They were mostly speakers of Iranian languages.

Despite belonging to similar material cultures, the peoples of the Scytho-Siberian world belonged to many separate ethnic groups.
Peoples associated with the Scytho-Siberian world include speakers of the Scythian languages:
* Massagetae
* Sarmatians
* Saka
* Scythians
* Agathyrsi
* Sigynnae
* Cimmerians
* Forest steppe people

Although the peoples of the forest steppe were part of the Scytho-Siberian world, their origins are obscure; there might have been early Slavs, Balts, and Finnic peoples among them. The settled population of the Scytho-Siberian world areas also included Thracians.

Terminology

Among the diverse peoples of the Scytho-Siberian world, the Scythians are the most famous, due to the reports on them published by the 5th century Greek historian Herodotus. The ancient Persians referred to all nomads of steppe as ''Saka''. In modern times, term ''Scythians'' is sometimes applied to all the peoples associated with the Scytho-Siberian world. Within this terminology it is often distinguished between "western" Scythians living on the Pontic–Caspian steppe, and "eastern" Scythians living on the Eastern Steppe. The term ''Scytho-Siberians'' has also been applied to all peoples associated with the Scytho-Siberian world. The terms ''Early Nomads'' and ''Iron Age Nomads'' have also been used. The terms ''Saka'' or ''Sauromates'', and ''Scytho-Siberians'', is sometimes used for the "eastern" Scythians living in Central Asia and southern Siberia respectively.

The ambiguity of the term ''Scythian'' has led to a lot of confusion in literature.

Nicola Di Cosmo (1999) questions the validity of referring to the cultures of all early Eurasian nomads as "Scythian", and recommends the use of alternative terms such as ''Early Nomadic''.

By ancient authors, the term "Scythian" eventually came to be applied to a wide range of peoples "who had no relation whatever to the original Scythians", such as Huns, Goths, Türks, Avars, Khazars, and other unnamed nomads.

Characteristics

The cultures of the Scytho-Siberian world are recognized for three characteristics known as the ''Scythian triad'':
* similar, yet not identical, shapes for horses' bridles,
* their weapons, especially their distinct short, composite bows, and
* the styling on their jewelry and decorations.

Their art was made in the ''animal style'', so characteristic that it is also called Scythian art.

Finds

In the beginning of the 18th century, Russian explorers began uncovering Scythian finds throughout their newly acquired territories.

Significant Scythian archaeological finds have been uncovered up to recent times. A major find are the Pazyryk burials, which were discovered on the Ukok Plateau in the 1940s. The finds are notably for revealing the form of mummification practiced by the Scythians. Another important find is the Issyk kurgan.

Society

The Scythians were excellent craftsmen with complex cultural traditions. Horse sacrifices are common in Scythian graves, and several of the sacrificed horses were evidently old and well-kept, indicating that the horse played a prominent role in Scythian society. They played a prominent role in the network connecting ancient civilizations known as the Silk Road. The homogeneity of patrilineal lineages and contrasting diversity of matrilineal lineages of samples from Scythian burial sites indicate that Scythian society was strongly patriarchal.

Numerous archaeological finds have revealed that the Scythians led a warlike life: Their competition for territory must have been fierce. The numerous weapons placed in graves are indicative of a highly militarized society. Scythian warfare was primarily conducted through mounted archery. They were the first great power to perfect this tactic. The Scythians developed a new, powerful type of bow known as the Scythian bow. Sometimes they would poison their arrows.

Physical appearance

They were tall and powerfully built, even by modern standards. Skeletons of Scythian elite differ from those of today by their longer arms and legs, and thicker, stronger bones. This was particularly the case for warriors and elite men, who were often more than 1.8 m (5 ft 11 in) tall. Sometimes they exceeded 1.9 m (6 ft 3 in) in height; even a few remains of Scythian men taller than 2.0 m (6 ft 6 in) have been excavated. The common people whom they dominated were much smaller and lighter, averaging 10–15 cm (4–6 in) shorter than the elite.

Their physical traits are characteristic of Iranian peoples and support a common origin indicated by the genetic and linguistic evidence.

Genetics

The genetics of remains from Scythian-identified cultures show broad general patterns, among these are remarkably different histories for men and women. Their ethnic affiliations are summarized above. Their familial inter-relations are discussed below.

There are two distinct paternal lineages in the east and west, with the eastern and western paternal lineages being themselves homogeneous. The paternal western Scythian haplogroups are closely related to modern Europeans, but disappeared from the Scythian steppe region, being eventually replaced by the eastern Scythians. The surviving modern populations most closely related to the paternal western Scythian lineages are in Europe; apparently none remain in mid- and northern-Asia.

In contrast, the maternal lineages among Scythians are diverse, and the eastern and western maternal lines were significantly mixed. The free intermarriage of women across all of the Scytho-Siberian world could be what maintained trans-Scythian cultural coherence. Further, rather than dying out, local maternal Scythian lineages persist among modern people living near the excavated graves.

Ethnogenesis

In 2017, a genetic study of various cultures of the Scytho-Siberian world was published in ''Nature Communications''. The study found that Late Bronze Age Scythians (and other Central Asian groups) harbored nearly exclusively European-related (Western Steppe Herders) ancestry, close or identical to the earlier Sintashta, Andronovo, and Afanasievo culture. Since the late Iron Age the Scythian gene pool became more diverse, and late Iron Age Scythians can be described as admixture between dominant European-related ancestry from the Yamnaya culture, with an East Asian component. Iron Age Scythians can be differentiated into Western Scythians (in Central Asia) which had predominantly European-related ancestry, and Eastern Scythians, which harbored increased East Asian-related admixture. While the origin of the Scythian material culture is disputed, their evidence suggest an ultimate origin in the Eastern Steppe, close the Altai Mountains, perhaps linked to the earlier Afanasievo culture. Modern populations relative closely related to the ancient Scythians were found to be populations living in proximity to the sites studied, suggesting genetic continuity.. Genomic inference reveals that Scythians in the east and the west of the steppe zone can best be described as a mixture of Yamnaya-related ancestry and an East Asian component. Demographic modelling suggests independent origins for eastern and western groups with ongoing gene-flow between them, plausibly explaining the striking uniformity of their material culture. We also find evidence that significant gene-flow from east to west Eurasia must have occurred early during the Iron Age. The origin of the widespread Scythian culture has long been debated in Eurasian archaeology. The northern Black Sea steppe was originally considered the homeland and centre of the Scythians3 until Terenozhkin formulated the hypothesis of a Central Asian origin4. On the other hand, evidence supporting an east Eurasian origin includes the kurgan Arzhan 1 in Tuva5, which is considered the earliest Scythian kurgan5. Dating of additional burial sites situated in east and west Eurasia confirmed eastern kurgans as older than their western counterparts6,7. Additionally, elements of the characteristic ‘Animal Style’ dated to the tenth century BCE1,4 were found in the region of the Yenisei river and modern-day China, supporting the early presence and origin of Scythian culture in the East.

Krzewińska et al. (2018) found that the Eastern Scythian Steppe populations were genetically heterogeneous and had next to their European-related ancestry also genetic affinities with populations from several other regions including the Far East and the southern Urals.

Järve et al. (2019) found that the nomadic Scythians were of different genetic origins, while sharing a common material culture. They suggested that migrations must have played a role in the emergence of the Scythians as the dominant power on the Pontic steppe.. "The Early Iron Age nomadic Scythians have been described as a confederation of tribes of different origins, based on ancient DNA evidence , 2, 3 All samples of this study also possessed at least one additional eastern component, one of which was nearly at 100% in modern Nganasans (orange) and the other in modern Han Chinese (yellow; Figure S2). The eastern components were present in variable proportions in the samples of this study."

A 2021 study by Gnecchi-Ruscone et al., concluded that the Eastern Scythians around the Altai mountain were of multiple origin and that they originated from an admixture event in the Bronze Age. The Eastern Scythians genetically formed from mixture between Steppe_MLBA sources (which could be associated with different cultures such as Sintashta, Srubnaya, and Andronovo) and a specific East-Eurasian source that was already present during the LBA in the neighboring northern Mongolia region.

Western Scythian culture genetics

This section lists the findings of genetic studies of the remains excavated in western Asia and eastern Europe ascribed to one of the Scythian cultures.

Mathieson & Reich (2015) analyzed the remains of an individual from Samara Oblast, Russia, dated and ascribed to the Scytho-Siberian world. The individual was found to belong to haplogroup R1a1a1b2a2a. This lineage is associated with earlier Srubnaya culture of the Pontic–Caspian steppe, which again traces its origin to the Yamnaya culture.

Järve (2019) studied genetics of various peoples belonging to the Scytho-Siberian cultures, such as Cimmerians, Scythians, Sarmatians, and Saka. Most of the remains in all groups were found to carry various subclades of haplogroup R1a, with a few haplogroup Q samples.

Eastern Scythian culture genetics

This section lists the findings of genetic studies of the remains excavated in central Eurasia and the eastern steppe ascribed to one of the Scythian cultures.

Pilipenko (2018) studied mtDNA from remains of the Tagar culture, which was part of the Scytho-Siberian world. Although found in Turkic Khakassia, at the eastern extreme of the Eurasian steppe, remains from the early years of the Tagar culture were found to be closely related to those of contemporary Scythians on the Pontic steppe far to the west. The authors suggested that the source of this genetic similarity was an eastwards migration of west Eurasians during the Bronze Age, which probably contributed to the formation of the Tagar culture.

Mary (2019) studied the genetics of remains from the Aldy-Bel culture in and around Tuva in central Asia, adjacent to western Mongolia; the Aldy-Bel culture is considered one of the Scytho-Siberian cultures. The majority of the samples (9 out of 17) were found to be carriers of haplogroup R1a, including two carriers of haplogroup R1a1a1b2‑Z93. East Asian admixture was also detected, as 6 haplogroup Q-L54 (including 5 in Sagly culture) and 1 haplogroup N-M231 were excavated. The haplogroup of the remaining 1 sample was uncertain (probably group R).

The Scythian groups of the Pontic Steppe and South Siberia had significantly different paternal genetics, which indicates that the Pontic and South Siberian Scythians had completely different paternal origins, with almost no paternal gene flow between them.

See also

* Eurasian nomads
* Early Slavs

Notes

References

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Further reading

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Scythian cultures

9th-century BC establishments
2nd-century disestablishments
Archaeological cultures of Central Asia
Archaeological cultures of Eastern Europe
Archaeological cultures of Northern Asia
Iranian archaeological cultures
Iron Age cultures of Asia
Iron Age cultures of Europe
Cultures