Sayf al-Dīn Salār al-Manṣūrī (–September or October 1310) was the viceroy of the
Mamluk
Mamluk ( ar, مملوك, mamlūk (singular), , ''mamālīk'' (plural), translated as "one who is owned", meaning " slave", also transliterated as ''Mameluke'', ''mamluq'', ''mamluke'', ''mameluk'', ''mameluke'', ''mamaluke'', or ''marmeluke'') ...
sultan
al-Nasir Muhammad
Al-Malik an-Nasir Nasir ad-Din Muhammad ibn Qalawun ( ar, الملك الناصر ناصر الدين محمد بن قلاوون), commonly known as an-Nasir Muhammad ( ar, الناصر محمد), or by his kunya: Abu al-Ma'ali () or as Ibn Qal ...
during the latter's second reign (1299–1310). As a boy he was taken captive at the
Battle of Elbistan
On April 15, 1277, the Mamluk Sultanate, Mamluk Sultan Baybars marched from Syria into the Mongol-dominated Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm and attacked the Mongol occupation force in the Battle of Elbistan (Abulustayn). Upon reaching Elbistan with at lea ...
in 1277 and became a
mamluk
Mamluk ( ar, مملوك, mamlūk (singular), , ''mamālīk'' (plural), translated as "one who is owned", meaning " slave", also transliterated as ''Mameluke'', ''mamluq'', ''mamluke'', ''mameluk'', ''mameluke'', ''mamaluke'', or ''marmeluke'') ...
(slave soldier) of the emir al-Salih Ali and eleven years later by the latter's father Sultan
Qalawun
( ar, قلاوون الصالحي, – November 10, 1290) was the seventh Bahri Mamluk sultan; he ruled Egypt from 1279 to 1290.
He was called (, "Qalāwūn the Victorious").
Biography and rise to power
Qalawun was a Kipchak, ancient Turkic ...
. Salar distinguished himself in his training as a skilled horseman among other mamluks of the Mansuriyya faction (mamluks of Qalawun). He was promoted to the rank of ''ustadar'' (
majordomo
A majordomo is a person who speaks, makes arrangements, or takes charge for another. Typically, this is the highest (''major'') person of a household (''domūs'' or ''domicile'') staff, a head servant who acts on behalf of the owner of a large ...
) by his friend, Sultan
Lajin
Lachin ( ar, لاجين), full royal name al-Malik al-Mansour Hossam ad-Din Lachin al-Mansuri (; d. January 16, 1299, Cairo) was a Mamluk sultan of Egypt from 1296 to 1299. Originally Greek, he was a mamluk of Al-Mansur Qalawun and had participate ...
in 1299. After participating in Lajin's assassination later that year he effectively became the strongman of the sultanate alongside
Baybars al-Jashnakir. Despite tensions and incidents between their respective factions, Salar and Baybars avoided direct conflict throughout their power-sharing arrangement. Salar continued as viceroy when Baybars acceded as sultan in 1309 after al-Nasir Muhammad stepped down and exiled himself. After Baybars was deposed in 1310, al-Nasir Muhammad returned to power and Salar was consequently imprisoned and starved to death. His sons and grandsons became middle-ranking emirs of al-Nasir Muhammad and his successors.
Early life
Salar was an ethnic
Oirat Mongol
The Mongols ( mn, Монголчууд, , , ; ; russian: Монголы) are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia, Inner Mongolia in China and the Buryatia Republic of the Russian Federation. The Mongols are the principal member of ...
. He was taken captive, likely between the ages of ten and fifteen, during the
Battle of Elbistan
On April 15, 1277, the Mamluk Sultanate, Mamluk Sultan Baybars marched from Syria into the Mongol-dominated Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm and attacked the Mongol occupation force in the Battle of Elbistan (Abulustayn). Upon reaching Elbistan with at lea ...
in
Anatolia
Anatolia, tr, Anadolu Yarımadası), and the Anatolian plateau, also known as Asia Minor, is a large peninsula in Western Asia and the westernmost protrusion of the Asian continent. It constitutes the major part of modern-day Turkey. The re ...
, where the
Mamluk
Mamluk ( ar, مملوك, mamlūk (singular), , ''mamālīk'' (plural), translated as "one who is owned", meaning " slave", also transliterated as ''Mameluke'', ''mamluq'', ''mamluke'', ''mameluk'', ''mameluke'', ''mamaluke'', or ''marmeluke'') ...
s routed the Mongol
Ilkhanate
The Ilkhanate, also spelled Il-khanate ( fa, ایل خانان, ''Ilxānān''), known to the Mongols as ''Hülegü Ulus'' (, ''Qulug-un Ulus''), was a khanate established from the southwestern sector of the Mongol Empire. The Ilkhanid realm, ...
in 1277. His father had been a senior Ilkhanid emir in Anatolia. He thereafter became a
mamluk
Mamluk ( ar, مملوك, mamlūk (singular), , ''mamālīk'' (plural), translated as "one who is owned", meaning " slave", also transliterated as ''Mameluke'', ''mamluq'', ''mamluke'', ''mameluk'', ''mameluke'', ''mamaluke'', or ''marmeluke'') ...
(slave soldier) of al-Salih Ali, the son Sultan
Qalawun
( ar, قلاوون الصالحي, – November 10, 1290) was the seventh Bahri Mamluk sultan; he ruled Egypt from 1279 to 1290.
He was called (, "Qalāwūn the Victorious").
Biography and rise to power
Qalawun was a Kipchak, ancient Turkic ...
. Following al-Salih Ali's death in 1288, Salar was transferred to the ownership of Qalawun. From the time of his ownership by al-Salih Ali and through Qalawun's sultanate, he likely lived and trained with the Sultan's elite ''mamluk'' corps, the Mansuriyya. He was a skilled
horseman and had achieved the rank of ''amir ashara'' (commander of ten mamluks) in the same year he was transferred to Qalawun.
Viceroy
During the reign of
Lajin
Lachin ( ar, لاجين), full royal name al-Malik al-Mansour Hossam ad-Din Lachin al-Mansuri (; d. January 16, 1299, Cairo) was a Mamluk sultan of Egypt from 1296 to 1299. Originally Greek, he was a mamluk of Al-Mansur Qalawun and had participate ...
(), with whom Salar had a close friendship, Salar first attained prominence as the Sultan's ''ustadar'' (
majordomo
A majordomo is a person who speaks, makes arrangements, or takes charge for another. Typically, this is the highest (''major'') person of a household (''domūs'' or ''domicile'') staff, a head servant who acts on behalf of the owner of a large ...
). Nonetheless, Salar participated in Lajin's assassination and the subsequent installation of Qalawun's young son
al-Nasir Muhammad
Al-Malik an-Nasir Nasir ad-Din Muhammad ibn Qalawun ( ar, الملك الناصر ناصر الدين محمد بن قلاوون), commonly known as an-Nasir Muhammad ( ar, الناصر محمد), or by his kunya: Abu al-Ma'ali () or as Ibn Qal ...
as sultan in 1299. Later, in September of that year, Salar also helped suppress a mutiny by an Oirat contingent in the Mamluk army in
Palestine
__NOTOC__
Palestine may refer to:
* State of Palestine, a state in Western Asia
* Palestine (region), a geographic region in Western Asia
* Palestinian territories, territories occupied by Israel since 1967, namely the West Bank (including East ...
whose aim has been to reinstall the Oirat
Kitbugha
Kitbuqa Noyan (died 1260), also spelled Kitbogha, Kitboga, or Ketbugha, was an Eastern Christian of the Naimans, a group that was subservient to the Mongol Empire. He was a lieutenant and confidant of the Mongol Ilkhan Hulagu, assisting him i ...
as sultan. The Oirats had collaborated with disaffected members of the Royal Mamluks and attempted to assassinate Salar at
Tell al-Ajjul
Tall al-Ajjul or Tell el-'Ajul is an archaeological mound or '' tell'' in the Gaza Strip. The fortified city excavated at the site dates as far back as ca. 2000-1800 BCE and was inhabited during the Bronze Age. It is located at the mouth of Wad ...
near
Gaza.
During the second reign of al-Nasir, eight mamluks of the Mansuriyya, including Salar, wielded actual power. He held the official role of ''na'ib al-saltana'' (viceroy) and was one of the two most powerful leaders of the sultanate alongside
Baybars al-Jashnakir. Salar and Baybars arranged for a relatively small payment to the Sultan while they divided most state matters between themselves. According to the 14th-century historian
al-Maqrizi
Al-Maqrīzī or Maḳrīzī (Arabic: ), whose full name was Taqī al-Dīn Abū al-'Abbās Aḥmad ibn 'Alī ibn 'Abd al-Qādir ibn Muḥammad al-Maqrīzī (Arabic: ) (1364–1442) was a medieval Egyptian Arab historian during the Mamluk era, kn ...
, Salar and Baybars would assemble the leading mamluks and officials in front of the Sultan twice weekly where "Salar presented to him whatever he wanted, consulted about it with the amirs and said: 'the sultan ordered so and so' and he
l-Nasir Muhammadsigned it".
Salar and Baybars largely avoided conflict with each other, aware of the potentially fatal repercussions for either should factional strife occur. The Sultan often attempted to foster such strife between them and their respective supporters. Salar's 'Turkish' faction was composed of most of the Mansuriyya and the remnants of the older
Salihiyya
Salihiyya ( so, Saalixiya; Urwayniya, ar, الصالحية) is a ''tariqa'' (order) of Sufi Islam prevalent in Somalia and the adjacent Somali region of Ethiopia. It was founded in the Sudan by Sayyid Muhammad Salih (1854-1919). The order is c ...
mamluks, while Baybars was backed by the largely
Circassian Burjiyya mamluks, the more numerous and stronger faction within the Mansuriyya.
Salar had established marital ties with the family of Qalawun in 1299 when he married off his daughter to Musa ibn al-Salih Ali ibn Qalawun. In 1304 they consummated the marriage and in the following year, Salar brought his mother and two brothers, Juba and Dawud, to Egypt, along with around 200 other Oirats. Salar's other brothers Adam, Mughultay, Lajin and Samuk, were already established in Egypt. Salar soon after promoted his relatives and associates, awarding emirates to his brothers, his son-in-law Musa, and his friend
Sanjar al-Jawli
Sanjar ibn Abdullah Alam al-Din Abu Sa'id al-Jawli (also spelled Sangar al-Gawli, Sanjar al-Jawali or Sinjar al-Jawili, 1255–14 January 1345) was a powerful Mamluk ''emir'' and the Governor of Gaza and much of Palestine between 1311–20 during ...
.
Campaign against Bedouin of Upper Egypt
In 1303 Salar and Baybars led a large scale military campaign against the Bedouin tribes of
Upper Egypt
Upper Egypt ( ar, صعيد مصر ', shortened to , , locally: ; ) is the southern portion of Egypt and is composed of the lands on both sides of the Nile that extend upriver from Lower Egypt in the north to Nubia in the south.
In ancient ...
for their persistent defiance of Mamluk authority. The Bedouin had long evaded taxes, taxed the merchants of
Asyut
AsyutAlso spelled ''Assiout'' or ''Assiut'' ( ar, أسيوط ' , from ' ) is the capital of the modern Asyut Governorate in Egypt. It was built close to the ancient city of the same name, which is situated nearby. The modern city is located at , ...
and
Manfalut
Manfalut ( ar, منفلوط ', ; ) is a city in Egypt. It is located on the west bank of the Nile, in the Asyut Governorate. The city is at 350 km (230 miles) south of Cairo. In 2006, it had a population of 82,585 people.
Local agriculture i ...
, and ignored the orders of the local governors. The Bedouin were taken by surprise and numerous tribesmen were slain or taken captive. Despite the heavy toll inflicted, the tribal revolts remained a persistent problem throughout Mamluk rule.
Confrontation with the sultan
In late 1307 or early 1308, al-Nasir Muhammad and his Royal Mamluks attempted to assassinate Salar and Baybars in their homes. The emirs' gained knowledge of the plot and secured the secret defection of the sultan's leading hitman, the emir Baktamur. Salar then sent his brother Samuk to besiege the sultan and his mamluks, eventually compelling al-Nasir Muhammad to reach an agreement with Salar. The sultan remained in Cairo but with heavy restrictions on his movements and budget. As a result, he escaped to the desert fortress of
al-Karak
Al-Karak ( ar, الكرك), is a city in Jordan known for its medieval castle, the Kerak Castle. The castle is one of the three largest castles in the region, the other two being in Syria. Al-Karak is the capital city of the Karak Governorate.
...
in
Transjordan Transjordan may refer to:
* Transjordan (region), an area to the east of the Jordan River
* Oultrejordain, a Crusader lordship (1118–1187), also called Transjordan
* Emirate of Transjordan, British protectorate (1921–1946)
* Hashemite Kingdom of ...
in 1309 where he renounced his sultanate.
In the consultations among the senior emirs to elect a new sultan, Salar was initially the leading candidate, having served as viceroy for the preceding decade and having the support of the older Mansuri emirs. Nonetheless, the stronger Burjiyya faction favored Baybars for the sultanate, and Salar lent his backing. In the ensuing reign of Baybars, Salar remained viceroy.
Downfall
Al-Nasir Muhammad regained power in March 1310 and soon after moved against his opponents among the Mansuriyya, including Salar. The latter had publicly expressed his full support for the Sultan following the exile of Baybars al-Jashnakir. At the time, Salar was in command of the
Cairo Citadel
The Citadel of Cairo or Citadel of Saladin ( ar, قلعة صلاح الدين, Qalaʿat Salāḥ ad-Dīn) is a medieval Islamic-era fortification in Cairo, Egypt, built by Salah ad-Din (Saladin) and further developed by subsequent Egyptian ruler ...
. When the Sultan arrived in Cairo, Salar offered him numerous horses, slaves and precious fabrics to appease him. As Salar felt vulnerable in Cairo, capital of the Sutlanate, he requested and received from al-Nasir Muhammad a reassignment to the
Shawbak
Montreal ( ar, مونتريال; la, Mons Regalis, Mont Real), or Qal'at ash-Shawbak (قلعة الشوبك) in Arabic, is a castle built by the Kingdom of Jerusalem, Crusaders and expanded by the Mamluk Egypt, Mamluks, on the eastern side of t ...
fortress in the desert of
Transjordan Transjordan may refer to:
* Transjordan (region), an area to the east of the Jordan River
* Oultrejordain, a Crusader lordship (1118–1187), also called Transjordan
* Emirate of Transjordan, British protectorate (1921–1946)
* Hashemite Kingdom of ...
. The Sultan also promoted him to the rank of emir of one hundred ''mamluk'' cavalries.
After al-Nasir Muhammad executed Baybars al-Jashnakir in April, he arrested twenty of Salar's close associates, including three of his brothers Samuk, Juba and Dawud. Salar refused summons to Cairo, but agreed after being persuaded by his friend
Sanjar al-Jawli
Sanjar ibn Abdullah Alam al-Din Abu Sa'id al-Jawli (also spelled Sangar al-Gawli, Sanjar al-Jawali or Sinjar al-Jawili, 1255–14 January 1345) was a powerful Mamluk ''emir'' and the Governor of Gaza and much of Palestine between 1311–20 during ...
. The roads to the Ilkhanate were concurrently blocked for prevent a potential escape by Salar. Upon arriving in Cairo, Salar was imprisoned in the city's citadel where he died of starvation in September or October 1310. Afterward, his numerous properties and money were confiscated by the Sultan. His brothers Juba and Dawud were released from prison in 1315.
Sanjar al-Jawli built a double mausoleum tomb for Salar and himself in Cairo. Salar's mausoleum was the larger of the two. The complex also served as a ''
khanqah
A khanqah ( fa, خانقاه) or khangah ( fa, خانگاه; also transliterated as ''khankah'', ''khaneqa'', ''khanegah'' or ''khaneqah''; also Arabized ''hanegah'', ''hanikah'', ''hanekah'', ''khankan''), also known as a ribat (), is a buildin ...
'' (
Sufi
Sufism ( ar, ''aṣ-ṣūfiyya''), also known as Tasawwuf ( ''at-taṣawwuf''), is a mystic body of religious practice, found mainly within Sunni Islam but also within Shia Islam, which is characterized by a focus on Islamic spirituality, ...
lodge) and
madrasa
Madrasa (, also , ; Arabic: مدرسة , pl. , ) is the Arabic word for any type of educational institution, secular or religious (of any religion), whether for elementary instruction or higher learning. The word is variously transliterated '' ...
.
Descendants
Salar's son Ali was appointed an ''amir ashara'' by al-Nasir Muhammad and was promoted to ''amir tablkhanah'' (commander of forty mamluks). He was recorded as in emir in Egypt in 1338 and died four years later. His position was inherited by his son Khalil (d. 1368), who was also the supervisor of Salar's ''awqaf'' (religious endowments). Salar's son Nasir was already an emir of ten by the start of al-Nasir Muhammad's reign. Another son of Salar, Sayf al-Din Abu Bakr, was an emir and his son Musa (d. 1395) was an emir of ten and held the position of ''amir tabar'' (head of the ax-bearers).
Architectural legacy
Salar restored the ''
mihrab
Mihrab ( ar, محراب, ', pl. ') is a niche in the wall of a mosque that indicates the ''qibla'', the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca towards which Muslims should face when praying. The wall in which a ''mihrab'' appears is thus the "qibla w ...
'' (prayer niche) of the
al-Azhar Mosque
Al-Azhar Mosque ( ar, الجامع الأزهر, al-Jāmiʿ al-ʾAzhar, lit=The Resplendent Congregational Mosque, arz, جامع الأزهر, Gāmiʿ el-ʾazhar), known in Egypt simply as al-Azhar, is a mosque in Cairo, Egypt in the histori ...
in Cairo and changed the decoration of its
spandrel
A spandrel is a roughly triangular space, usually found in pairs, between the top of an arch and a rectangular frame; between the tops of two adjacent arches or one of the four spaces between a circle within a square. They are frequently fill ...
s following damage from an earthquake in 1303. In the
Fustat
Fusṭāṭ ( ar, الفُسطاط ''al-Fusṭāṭ''), also Al-Fusṭāṭ and Fosṭāṭ, was the first capital of Egypt under Muslim rule, and the historical centre of modern Cairo. It was built adjacent to what is now known as Old Cairo by ...
district he built a ''mihrab'' on the outside of the
Mosque of Amr ibn al-As
The Mosque of Amr ibn al-As ( ar, جامع عمرو بن العاص), or Taj al-Jawame' ( ar, تاج الجوامِع, lit=Crown of Mosques), or Masjid Ahl ar-Rayah ( ar, مسجد اهل الرّاية, lit=Mosque of the Banner Bearers), or Ja ...
, the oldest mosque in Egypt. The ''mihrab'' is no longer extant, but could be seen in older photographs of the mosque. Both ''mihrabs'' were designed with multiple rows of niches inlaid with geometric patterns and
arabesque
The arabesque is a form of artistic decoration consisting of "surface decorations based on rhythmic linear patterns of scrolling and interlacing foliage, tendrils" or plain lines, often combined with other elements. Another definition is "Foli ...
s.
In
Palestine
__NOTOC__
Palestine may refer to:
* State of Palestine, a state in Western Asia
* Palestine (region), a geographic region in Western Asia
* Palestinian territories, territories occupied by Israel since 1967, namely the West Bank (including East ...
Salar built the Great Mosque of
Majdal Asqalan (in modern
Ashkelon
Ashkelon or Ashqelon (; Hebrew: , , ; Philistine: ), also known as Ascalon (; Ancient Greek: , ; Arabic: , ), is a coastal city in the Southern District of Israel on the Mediterranean coast, south of Tel Aviv, and north of the border with ...
) and the minaret of the
Sheikh Ali al-Bakka Mosque in
Hebron
Hebron ( ar, الخليل or ; he, חֶבְרוֹן ) is a Palestinian. city in the southern West Bank, south of Jerusalem. Nestled in the Judaean Mountains, it lies above sea level. The second-largest city in the West Bank (after East J ...
. He is credited by an inscription for building the ''khan'' (caravanserai) near
Beisan called Khan al-Hamra or Khan al-Ahmar (both mean "the Red Khan"). The Mamluk historian
al-Maqrizi
Al-Maqrīzī or Maḳrīzī (Arabic: ), whose full name was Taqī al-Dīn Abū al-'Abbās Aḥmad ibn 'Alī ibn 'Abd al-Qādir ibn Muḥammad al-Maqrīzī (Arabic: ) (1364–1442) was a medieval Egyptian Arab historian during the Mamluk era, kn ...
wrote that the ''khan'' was built by Sanjar al-Jawli for Salar.
References
Bibliography
*
*
*
*
*
*{{cite journal , last1=Yosef , first1=Kobe , title=Mamluks and Their Relatives in the Period of the Mamluk Sultanate (1260-1517) , journal=Mamluk Studies Review , date=2012 , volume=16 , pages=55–69
1260s births
1310 deaths
14th-century viceregal rulers
Bahri dynasty
Mamluk emirs
Regents of Egypt
Mongol Mamluks
People who died in prison custody