''Sannyasa'' (
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
:
संन्यास;
IAST: ), sometimes spelled Sanyasa (सन्न्यास) or Sanyasi (for the person), is life of renunciation and the fourth stage within the
Hindu
Hindus (; ) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism. Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pages 35–37 Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for ...
system of four life stages known as ''
Ashramas'', with the first three being
Brahmacharya (bachelor student),
Grihastha (householder) and
Vanaprastha (forest dweller, retired).
Sannyasa is traditionally conceptualized for men or women in late years of their life, but young brahmacharis have had the choice to skip the householder and retirement stages, renounce worldly and materialistic pursuits and dedicate their lives to spiritual pursuits.
Sannyasa is a form of
asceticism, is marked by renunciation of material desires and prejudices, represented by a state of disinterest and detachment from material life, and has the purpose of spending one's life in peaceful, spiritual pursuits. An individual in Sanyasa is known as a ''Sannyasi'' (male) or ''Sannyasini'' (female) in
Hinduism
Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...
, which in many ways parallel to the
Sadhu
''Sadhu'' ( sa, साधु, IAST: ' (male), ''sādhvī'' or ''sādhvīne'' (female)), also spelled ''saddhu'', is a religious ascetic, mendicant or any holy person in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism who has renounced the worldly life. ...
and Sadhvi traditions of
Jain monasticism, the
bhikkhu
A ''bhikkhu'' (Pali: भिक्खु, Sanskrit: भिक्षु, ''bhikṣu'') is an ordained male in Buddhist monasticism. Male and female monastics ("nun", ''bhikkhunī'', Sanskrit ''bhikṣuṇī'') are members of the Sangha (Buddhist ...
s and
bhikkhunis of
Buddhism
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religions, Indian religion or Indian philosophy#Buddhist philosophy, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha. ...
.
''Sannyasa'' has historically been a stage of renunciation,
ahimsa (non-violence) peaceful and simple life and spiritual pursuit in Indian traditions. However, this has not always been the case. After the invasions and establishment of Muslim rule in India, from the 12th century through the
British Raj
The British Raj (; from Hindi ''rāj'': kingdom, realm, state, or empire) was the rule of the British Crown on the Indian subcontinent;
*
* it is also called Crown rule in India,
*
*
*
*
or Direct rule in India,
* Quote: "Mill, who was him ...
, parts of the
Shaiva
Shaivism (; sa, शैवसम्प्रदायः, Śaivasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the Supreme Being. One of the largest Hindu denominations, it incorporates many sub-traditions rangin ...
(
Gossain Gossain or Gosain or Gussain or Gosyne is a Hindi word derived from sa, गोस्वामी "lord of senses". It is used as a title in various Indian religious traditions.
These include:
* Gossains, a Hindu social group dealing with Vedas ...
) and
Vaishnava
Vaishnavism ( sa, वैष्णवसम्प्रदायः, Vaiṣṇavasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu denominations along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism since it considers Vishnu as the ...
(
Bairagi) ascetics metamorphosed into a military order, where they developed martial arts, created military strategies, and engaged in guerrilla warfare.
[ These warrior ''sanyasi'' (ascetics) played an important role in helping European ]colonial powers
Colonialism is a practice or policy of control by one people or power over other people or areas, often by establishing colonies and generally with the aim of economic dominance. In the process of colonisation, colonisers may impose their relig ...
establish themselves in the Indian subcontinent
The Indian subcontinent is a list of the physiographic regions of the world, physiographical region in United Nations geoscheme for Asia#Southern Asia, Southern Asia. It is situated on the Indian Plate, projecting southwards into the Indian O ...
.[
]
Etymology and synonyms
' in Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
nyasa means purification, sannyasa means "Purification of Everything". It is a composite word of which means "together, all", ''ni-'' which means "down" and ' from the root ', meaning "to throw" or "to put".[ A literal translation of Sannyāsa is thus "to put down everything, all of it". Sannyasa is sometimes spelled as ''Sanyasa''.][Angus Stevenson and Maurice Wait (2011), Concise Oxford English Dictionary, , page 1275]
The term ''Saṃnyasa'' makes appearance in the Samhitas, Aranyaka
The Aranyakas (; sa, आरण्यक; IAST: ' ) are the part of the ancient Indian Vedas concerned with the meaning of ritual sacrifice. They typically represent the later sections of the Vedas, and are one of many layers of the Vedic texts ...
s and Brahmanas, the earliest layers of Vedic literature
upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''.
The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the ...
(2nd millennium BCE), but it is rare.[ It is not found in ancient Buddhist or Jaina vocabularies, and only appears in Hindu texts of the 1st millennium BCE, in the context of those who have given up ritual activity and taken up non-ritualistic spiritual pursuits discussed in the ]Upanishads
The Upanishads (; sa, उपनिषद् ) are late Vedic Sanskrit texts that supplied the basis of later Hindu philosophy.Wendy Doniger (1990), ''Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism'', 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, , ...
.[ The term ''Sannyasa'' evolves into a rite of renunciation in ancient Sutra texts, and thereafter became a recognized, well discussed stage of life (Ashrama) by about the 3rd and 4th century CE.][
Sanyasis are also known as Bhiksu, Pravrajita/Pravrajitā, Yati, Sramana and Parivrajaka in Hindu texts.][Patrick Olivelle (1981), Contributions to the Semantic History of Saṃnyāsa, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 101, No. 3, pages 265-274]
History
Jamison and Witzel state[Jamison and Witzel (1992)]
Vedic Hinduism
, Harvard University Archives, page 47 early Vedic texts make no mention of ''Sannyasa'', or ''Ashrama system'', unlike the concepts of Brahmacharin and Grihastha which they do mention. Instead, Rig Veda uses the term ''Antigriha'' (अन्तिगृह) in hymn 10.95.4, still part of extended family, where older people lived in ancient India, with an outwardly role.[ It is in later Vedic era and over time, ''Sannyasa'' and other new concepts emerged, while older ideas evolved and expanded. A three-stage Ashrama concept along with Vanaprastha emerged about or after 7th Century BC, when sages such as Yājñavalkya left their homes and roamed around as spiritual recluses and pursued their ''Pravrajika'' (wanderer) lifestyle. The explicit use of the four stage Ashrama concept, appeared a few centuries later.][
However, early Vedic literature from 2nd millennium BC, mentions '' Muni'' (मुनि, monks, mendicants, holy man), with characteristics that mirror those found in later ''Sannyasins'' and ''Sannyasinis''. Rig Veda, for example, in Book 10 Chapter 136, mentions munis as those with ''Kesin'' (केशिन्, long haired) and ''Mala'' clothes (मल, soil-colored, yellow, orange, saffron) engaged in the affairs of ''Mananat'' (mind, meditation).][GS Ghurye (1952), Ascetic Origins, Sociological Bulletin, Vol. 1, No. 2, pages 162-184;]
For Sanskrit original
Rigveda
Wikisource;
For English translation
Kesins
Rig Veda, Hymn CXXXVI, Ralph Griffith (Translator) Rigveda, however, refers to these people as ''Muni'' and ''Vati'' (वति, monks who beg).
These ''Munis'', their lifestyle and spiritual pursuit, likely influenced the Sannyasa concept, as well as the ideas behind the ancient concept of Brahmacharya (bachelor student). One class of ''Munis'' were associated with Rudra. Another were ''Vratyas''.
Lifestyle and goals
Hinduism
Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...
has no formal demands nor requirements on the lifestyle or spiritual discipline, method or deity a Sanyasin or Sanyasini must pursue – it is left to the choice and preferences of the individual.[M Khandelwal (2003), Women in Ochre Robes: Gendering Hindu Renunciation, State University of New York Press, , pages 24-29] This freedom has led to diversity and significant differences in the lifestyle and goals of those who adopt Sannyasa. There are, however, some common themes. A person in ''Sannyasa'' lives a simple life, typically detached, itinerant, drifting from place to place, with no material possessions or emotional attachments. They may have a walking stick, a book, a container or vessel for food and drink, often wearing yellow, saffron
Saffron () is a spice derived from the flower of ''Crocus sativus'', commonly known as the "saffron crocus". The vivid crimson stigma and styles, called threads, are collected and dried for use mainly as a seasoning and colouring agent in ...
, orange, ochre or soil colored clothes. They may have long hair and appear disheveled, and are usually vegetarians.[ Some minor ]Upanishads
The Upanishads (; sa, उपनिषद् ) are late Vedic Sanskrit texts that supplied the basis of later Hindu philosophy.Wendy Doniger (1990), ''Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism'', 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, , ...
as well as monastic orders consider women, children, students, fallen men (those with a criminal record) and others as not qualified to become ''Sannyasa''; while other texts place no restrictions. The dress, the equipage and lifestyle varies between groups. For example, Sannyasa Upanishad in verses 2.23 to 2.29, identifies six lifestyles for six types of renunciates.[A. A. Ramanathan]
Sannyasa Upanishad
The Theosophical Publishing House, Chennai, verses 2.23 - 2.29 One of them is described as living with the following possessions,[Mariasusai Dhavamony (2002), Hindu-Christian Dialogue: Theological Soundings and Perspectives, , page 97]
Those who enter Sannyasa may choose whether they join a group (mendicant order). Some are anchorites, homeless mendicants preferring solitude and seclusion in remote parts, without affiliation.[ Others are ]cenobites
Cenobitic (or coenobitic) monasticism is a monastic tradition that stresses community life. Often in the West the community belongs to a religious order, and the life of the cenobitic monk is regulated by a religious rule, a collection of prece ...
, living and traveling with kindred fellow-Sannyasi in the pursuit of their spiritual journey, sometimes in Ashramas or Matha
A ''matha'' (; sa, मठ, ), also written as ''math'', ''muth'', ''mutth'', ''mutt'', or ''mut'', is a Sanskrit word that means 'institute or college', and it also refers to a monastery in Hinduism. /Sangha (hermitages, monastic order).[SS Subramuniyaswami, , in What Is Hinduism? (Editors of Hinduism Today), Jan-Mar 2006, , page 102]
Most Hindu ascetics adopt celibacy when they begin Sannyasa. However, there are exceptions, such as the Saiva Tantra school of asceticism where ritual sex is considered part of liberation process.Gavin Flood
__NOTOC__
Gavin Dennis Flood (born 1954) is a British scholar of comparative religion specialising in Shaivism and phenomenology, but with research interests that span South Asian traditions.
From October 2005 through December 2015, he served ...
(2005), The Ascetic Self: Subjectivity, Memory and Tradition, Cambridge University Press, , Chapter 4 with pages 105-107 in particular Sex is viewed by them as a transcendence from a personal, intimate act to something impersonal and ascetic.[
]
The goal
The goal of the Hindu Sannyasin is moksha
''Moksha'' (; sa, मोक्ष, '), also called ''vimoksha'', ''vimukti'' and ''mukti'', is a term in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism for various forms of emancipation, enlightenment, liberation, and release. In its soteriologic ...
(liberation). The idea of what that means varies from tradition to tradition.
For the Bhakti (devotion) traditions, liberation consists of union with the Divine and release from Saṃsāra (rebirth in future life); for Yoga
Yoga (; sa, योग, lit=yoke' or 'union ) is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India and aim to control (yoke) and still the mind, recognizing a detached witness-consci ...
traditions, liberation is the experience of the highest Samādhi
''Samadhi'' (Pali and sa, समाधि), in Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism and yogic schools, is a state of meditative consciousness. In Buddhism, it is the last of the eight elements of the Noble Eightfold Path. In the Ashtanga Yoga ...
(deep awareness in this life); and for the Advaita
''Advaita Vedanta'' (; sa, अद्वैत वेदान्त, ) is a Hindu sādhanā, a path of spiritual discipline and experience, and the oldest extant tradition of the orthodox Hindu school Vedānta. The term ''Advaita'' (l ...
tradition, liberation is jivanmukti
A ''jīvanmukta'', literally meaning ''liberated while living'', is a person who, in the Vedānta philosophy, has gained complete self-knowledge and self-realisation and attained '' kaivalya'' or ''moksha'' ( enlightenment and liberation), thus ...
– the awareness of the Supreme Reality (Brahman
In Hinduism, ''Brahman'' ( sa, ब्रह्मन्) connotes the highest universal principle, the ultimate reality in the universe.P. T. Raju (2006), ''Idealistic Thought of India'', Routledge, , page 426 and Conclusion chapter part X ...
) and Self-realization in this life. Sannyasa is a means and an end in itself. It is a means to decreasing and then ultimately ending all ties of any kind. It is a means to the soul and meaning, but not ego nor personalities. Sannyasa does not abandon the society, it abandons the ritual mores of the social world and one's attachment to all its other manifestations. The end is a liberated, content, free and blissful existence.
The behaviors and characteristics
The behavioral state of a person in ''Sannyasa'' is described by many ancient and medieval era Indian texts. Bhagavad Gita discusses it in many verses, for example:[
Other behavioral characteristics, in addition to renunciation, during Sannyasa include: ahimsa (non-violence), ]akrodha
Akrodha (Sanskrit: अक्रोध) literally means "free from anger". It's considered an important virtue in Indian philosophy and Hindu ethics.
Etymology
''Akrodha'' is a fusion word between the Sanskrit prefix ''a'' (Sanskrit: अ; "without ...
(not become angry even if you are abused by others), disarmament (no weapons), chastity, bachelorhood (no marriage), avyati (non-desirous), amati (poverty), self-restraint, truthfulness, sarvabhutahita (kindness to all creatures), asteya (non-stealing), aparigraha (non-acceptance of gifts, non-possessiveness) and shaucha
Shaucha () literally means purity, cleanliness and clearness. It refers to purity of mind, speech and body. Saucha is one of the Niyamas of Yoga. It is discussed in many ancient Indian texts such as the Mahabharata and Patanjali's Yoga Sutras. It ...
(purity of body speech and mind).[Mariasusai Dhavamony (2002), Hindu-Christian Dialogue: Theological Soundings and Perspectives, , page 96-97, 111-114] Some Hindu monastic orders require the above behavior in form of a vow, before a renunciate can enter the order.[ Tiwari notes that these virtues are not unique to ''Sannyasa'', and other than renunciation, all of these virtues are revered in ancient texts for all four ''Ashramas'' (stages) of human life.
Baudhayana Dharmasūtra, completed by about 7th century BC, states the following behavioral vows for a person in ''Sannyasa''][ Max Muller (Translator)]
Baudhayana Dharmasūtra Prasna II, Adhyaya 10, Kandika 18
The Sacred Books of the East
The ''Sacred Books of the East'' is a monumental 50-volume set of English translations of Asian religious texts, edited by Max Müller and published by the Oxford University Press between 1879 and 1910. It incorporates the essential sacred texts ...
, Vol. XIV, Oxford University Press, pages 279-281
Types
Ashrama Upanishad identified various types of Sannyasi renouncers based on their different goals: Kutichaka – seeking atmospheric world; Bahudaka – seeking heavenly world; Hamsa – seeking penance world; Paramahamsa
Paramahamsa (Sanskrit: परमहंस, Bengali: পরমহংস, romanized: Pôromohôṅso; pronounced ɔromoɦɔŋʃo, also spelled paramahansa or paramhansa, is a Sanskrit religio-theological title of honour applied to Hindu spiritual ...
– seeking truth world; and Turiyatitas and Avadhutas seeking liberation in this life.
In some texts, such as Sannyasa Upanishad,[ these were classified by the symbolic items the Sannyasins carried and their lifestyle. For example, Kutichaka sannyasis carried triple staffs, Hamsa sannyasis carried single staffs, while Paramahamsas went without them. This method of classification based on emblematic items became controversial, as anti-thematic to the idea of renunciation. Later texts, such as Naradaparivrajaka Upanishad stated that all renunciation is one, but people enter the state of Sannyasa for different reasons – for detachment and getting away from their routine meaningless world, to seek knowledge and meaning in life, to honor rites of Sannyasa they have undertaken, and because he already has liberating knowledge.
;Other classifications
There were many groups of Hindu, Jain and Buddhist Sannyasis co-existing in pre-Maurya Empire era, each classified by their attributes, such as: Achelakas (without clothes), Ajivika, Aviruddhaka, Devadhammika, Eka-satakas, Gotamaka, Jatilaka, Magandika, Mundasavaka, Nigrantha (Jains), Paribbajaka, Tedandikas, Titthiya and others.
]
Literature
The Dharmasūtras and Dharmaśāstra
''Dharmaśāstra'' ( sa, धर्मशास्त्र) is a genre of Sanskrit texts on law and conduct, and refers to the treatises ( śāstras) on dharma. Unlike Dharmasūtra which are based upon Vedas, these texts are mainly based on ...
s, composed about mid 1st millennium BC and later, place increasing emphasis on all four stages of ''Ashrama system'' including ''Sannyasa''.[ The ]Baudhayana
The (Sanskrit: बौधायन) are a group of Vedic Sanskrit texts which cover dharma, daily ritual, mathematics and is one of the oldest Dharma-related texts of Hinduism that have survived into the modern age from the 1st-millennium BCE. Th ...
Dharmasūtra, in verses 2.11.9 to 2.11.12, describes the four Ashramas as "a fourfold division of Dharma". The older Dharmasūtras, however, are significantly different in their treatment of ''Ashramas'' system from the more modern Dharmaśāstras, because they do not limit some of their Ashrama rituals to ''dvija
Dvija (Sanskrit: द्विज) means "twice-born" in ancient Indian Sanskrit. The concept is premised on the belief that a person is first born physically and at a later date is born for a second time spiritually, usually when he undergoes the ...
'' men, that is, the three ''varnas'' – Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas.[Barbara Holdrege (2004), Dharma, in The Hindu World (Editors: Sushil Mittal and Gene Thursby), Routledge, , page 231] The newer Dharmaśāstra vary widely in their discussion of ''Ashrama'' system in the context of classes (castes), with some mentioning it for three, while others such as ''Vaikhānasa Dharmasūtra'' including all four.[
The Dharmasūtras and Dharmaśāstras give a number of detailed but widely divergent guidelines on renunciation. In all cases, Sannyasa was never mandatory and was one of the choices before an individual. Only a small percentage chose this path. Olivelle][Patrick Olivelle (1993), The Ashrama System: The History and Hermeneutics of a Religious Institution, Oxford University Press, ] posits that the older Dharmasūtras present the ''Ashramas'' including ''Sannyasa'' as four alternative ways of life and options available, but not as sequential stage that any individual must follow.[ Olivelle also states that ''Sannyasa'' along with the Ashrama system gained mainstream scholarly acceptance about 2nd century BC.
Ancient and medieval era texts of Hinduism consider ''Grihastha'' (householder) stage as the most important of all stages in sociological context, as human beings in this stage not only pursue a virtuous life, they produce food and wealth that sustains people in other stages of life, as well as the offspring that continues mankind.][RK Sharma (1999), Indian Society, Institutions and Change, , page 28] However, an individual had the choice to renounce any time he or she wanted, including straight after student life.[What is Hinduism? (Editors of Hinduism Today), , Family Life and Monastic Life, Chapter 10 with page 101 in particular]
When can a person renounce?
Baudhayana Dharmasūtra,[ in verse II.10.17.2 states that anyone who has finished Brahmacharya (student) life stage may become ascetic immediately, in II.10.17.3 that any childless couple may enter Sannyasa anytime they wish, while verse II.10.17.4 states that a widower may choose Sannyasa if desired, but in general, states verse II.10.17.5, Sannyasa is suited after the completion of age 70 and after one's children have been firmly settled.][ Max Muller (Translator)]
Baudhayana Dharmasūtra Prasna II, Adhyaya 10, Kandika 17
The Sacred Books of the East, Vol. XIV, Oxford University Press Other texts suggest the age of 75.
The ' and ''Āpastamba Dharmasūtra''s, and the later ' describe the ''āśrama''s as sequential stages which would allow one to pass from Vedic studentship to householder to forest-dwelling hermit to renouncer. However, these texts differ with each other. Yājñavalkya Smṛti
The ''Yajnavalkya Smriti'' ( sa, याज्ञवल्क्य स्मृति, IAST: ') is one of the many Dharma-related texts of Hinduism composed in Sanskrit. It is dated between the 3rd to 5th-century CE, and belongs to the Dharmasha ...
, for example, differs from Manusmṛti and states in verse 3.56 that one may skip Vanaprastha (forest dwelling, retired) stage and go straight from the ''Grihastha'' (householder) stage to ''Sannyasa''.
Who may renounce?
The question as to which ' may, or may not, renounce is never explicitly stated in ancient or medieval dharma literature, the more modern Dharmaśāstras texts discuss much of renunciation stage in context of ''dvija
Dvija (Sanskrit: द्विज) means "twice-born" in ancient Indian Sanskrit. The concept is premised on the belief that a person is first born physically and at a later date is born for a second time spiritually, usually when he undergoes the ...
'' men. Nevertheless, Dharmaśāstra texts document people of all castes as well as women, entered ''Sannyasa'' in practice.
What happened to renouncers' property and human rights?
After renouncing the world, the ascetic's financial obligations and property were adjudicated by the state, in the manner of a decedent's estate. Viṣṇu Smriti in verse 6.27, for example, states that if a debtor takes ''Sannyasa'', his sons or grandsons should settle his debts. As to the little property a Sannyasin may collect or possess after renunciation, Book III Chapter XVI of Kautiliya's Arthashastra states that the property of hermits (vánaprastha), ascetics (yati, sannyasa), and student bachelors (Brahmachári) shall on their death be taken by their ''guru'', disciples, their ''dharmabhratri'' (brother in the monastic order), or classmates in succession.
Although a renouncer's practitioner's obligations and property rights were reassigned, he or she continued to enjoy basic human rights such as the protection from injury by others and the freedom to travel. Likewise, someone practicing Sannyasa was subject to the same laws as common citizens; stealing, harming, or killing a human being by a Sannyasi were all serious crimes in Kautiliya's Arthashastra.
Renunciation in daily life
Later Indian literature debates whether the benefit of renunciation can be achieved (''moksha,'' or liberation) without asceticism in the earlier stages of one's life. For example, Bhagavad Gita, Vidyaranya's ''Jivanmukti Viveka,'' and others believed that various alternate forms of yoga
Yoga (; sa, योग, lit=yoke' or 'union ) is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India and aim to control (yoke) and still the mind, recognizing a detached witness-consci ...
and the importance of yogic discipline could serve as paths to spirituality, and ultimately ''moksha''. Over time, four paths to liberating spirituality have emerged in Hinduism: Jñāna yoga, Bhakti yoga, Karma yoga and Rāja yoga. Acting without greed or craving for results, in Karma yoga for example, is considered a form of detachment in daily life similar to ''Sannyasa''. Sharma[ states that, "the basic principle of Karma yoga is that it is not what one does, but how one does it that counts and if one has the know-how in this sense, one can become liberated by doing whatever it is one does", and "(one must do) whatever one does without attachment to the results, with efficiency and to the best of one's ability".][A Sharma (2000), Classical Hindu Thought: An Introduction, Oxford University Press, , pages 24-28]
Warrior ascetics
Ascetic life was historically a life of renunciation, non-violence and spiritual pursuit. However, in India, this has not always been the case. For example, after the Mongol and Persian Islamic invasions in the 12th century, and the establishment of Delhi Sultanate, the ensuing Hindu-Muslim conflicts provoked the creation of a military order of Hindu ascetics in India.[David N. Lorenzen (1978)]
Warrior Ascetics in Indian History
, Journal of the American Oriental Society, 98(1): 61-75[William Pinch (2012), Warrior Ascetics and Indian Empires, Cambridge University Press, ] These warrior ascetics formed paramilitary groups called ‘‘Akhara
Akhara or Akhada ( Sanskrit and Hindi: अखाड़ा, shortened to ''khara'' Hindi: खाड़ा) is an Indian word for a place of practice with facilities for boarding, lodging and training, both in the context of Indian martial artist ...
s'’ and they invented a range of martial arts.[
''Nath Siddhas'' of the 12th century AD, may have been the earliest Hindu monks to resort to a military response after the Muslim conquest. Ascetics, by tradition, led a nomadic and unattached lifestyle. As these ascetics dedicated themselves to rebellion, their groups sought stallions, developed techniques for spying and targeting, and they adopted strategies of war against Muslim nobles and the Sultanate state. Many of these groups were devotees of Hindu deity Mahadeva, and were called ''Mahants''.][ Other popular names for them was ''Sannyasis'', ''Yogis'', ''Nagas'' (followers of Shiva), ''Bairagis'' (followers of Vishnu) and '']Gosains
Gosains, (गोसाईं) who are also known as Gossains and as Goswami, are Hindu ascetics of India. The term can be translated as ''master of passion''. They are sometimes referred to more generally as Sannyasis.
The Gosains were powerful ...
'' from the 16th to the 19th centuries; in some cases, these Hindu monks cooperated with Muslim fakirs who were Sufi and also persecuted.[
Warrior monks continued their rebellion through the Mughal Empire, and became a political force during the early years of ]British Raj
The British Raj (; from Hindi ''rāj'': kingdom, realm, state, or empire) was the rule of the British Crown on the Indian subcontinent;
*
* it is also called Crown rule in India,
*
*
*
*
or Direct rule in India,
* Quote: "Mill, who was him ...
. In some cases, these regiments of soldier monks shifted from guerrilla campaigns to war alliances, and these Hindu warrior monks played a key role in helping British establish themselves in India. The significance of warrior ascetics rapidly declined with the consolidation of British Raj in late 19th century, and with the rise in non-violence movement by Mahatma Gandhi
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (; ; 2 October 1869 – 30 January 1948), popularly known as Mahatma Gandhi, was an Indian lawyer, anti-colonial nationalist Quote: "... marks Gandhi as a hybrid cosmopolitan figure who transformed ... anti- ...
.[
Novetzke states that some of these Hindu warrior ascetics were treated as folk heroes, aided by villagers and townspeople, because they targeted figures of political and economic power in a discriminatory state, and some of these warriors paralleled ]Robin Hood
Robin Hood is a legendary heroic outlaw originally depicted in English folklore and subsequently featured in literature and film. According to legend, he was a highly skilled archer and swordsman. In some versions of the legend, he is dep ...
's lifestyle.
Sannyasa Upanishads
Of the 108 Upanishad
The Upanishads (; sa, उपनिषद् ) are late Vedic Sanskrit texts that supplied the basis of later Hindu philosophy.Wendy Doniger (1990), ''Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism'', 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, , ...
s of the Muktika, the largest corpus is dedicated to ''Sannyasa'' and to Yoga
Yoga (; sa, योग, lit=yoke' or 'union ) is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India and aim to control (yoke) and still the mind, recognizing a detached witness-consci ...
, or about 20 each, with some overlap. The renunciation-related texts are called the Sannyasa Upanishads. These are as follows:
Among the thirteen major or Principal Upanishads
Principal Upanishads, also known as Mukhya Upanishads, are the most ancient and widely studied Upanishads of Hinduism. Composed between 800 BCE to the start of common era, these texts are connected to the Vedic tradition.
Content
The Principal U ...
, all from the ancient era, many include sections related to ''Sannyasa''. For example, the motivations and state of a ''Sannyasi'' are mentioned in Maitrāyaṇi Upanishad, a classical major Upanishad that Robert Hume included among his list of "Thirteen Principal Upanishads" of Hinduism. Maitrāyaṇi starts with the question, "given the nature of life, how is joy possible?" and "how can one achieve moksha
''Moksha'' (; sa, मोक्ष, '), also called ''vimoksha'', ''vimukti'' and ''mukti'', is a term in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism for various forms of emancipation, enlightenment, liberation, and release. In its soteriologic ...
(liberation)?"; in later sections it offers a debate on possible answers and its views on Sannyasa.
Six of the Sannyasa Upanishads – Aruni, Kundika, Kathashruti, Paramahamsa, Jabala and Brahma – were composed before the 3rd-century CE, likely in the centuries before or after the start of the common era, states Sprockhoff; the Asrama Upanishad is dated to the 3rd-century, the Naradaparivrajaka and Satyayaniya Upanishads to around the 12th-century, and about ten of the remaining Sannyasa Upanishads are dated to have been composed in the 14th- to 15th-century CE well after the start of Islamic Sultanates period of South Asia in late 12th-century.
The oldest Sannyasa Upanishads have a strong Advaita Vedanta
''Advaita Vedanta'' (; sa, अद्वैत वेदान्त, ) is a Hindu sādhanā, a path of spiritual discipline and experience, and the oldest extant tradition of the orthodox Hindu school Vedānta. The term ''Advaita'' ( ...
outlook, and these pre-date Adi Shankara
Adi Shankara ("first Shankara," to distinguish him from other Shankaras)(8th cent. CE), also called Adi Shankaracharya ( sa, आदि शङ्कर, आदि शङ्कराचार्य, Ādi Śaṅkarācāryaḥ, lit=First Shanka ...
. Most of the Sannyasa Upanishads present a Yoga and nondualism (Advaita
''Advaita Vedanta'' (; sa, अद्वैत वेदान्त, ) is a Hindu sādhanā, a path of spiritual discipline and experience, and the oldest extant tradition of the orthodox Hindu school Vedānta. The term ''Advaita'' (l ...
) Vedanta philosophy. This may be, states Patrick Olivelle, because major Hindu monasteries of early medieval period (1st millennium CE) belonged to the Advaita Vedanta tradition.[ The 12th-century ]Shatyayaniya Upanishad
The ''Shatyayaniya Upanishad'' ( sa, शाट्यायनीय उपनिषत्, IAST: Śāṭyāyanīya Upaniṣad) is a Sanskrit text, composed about the start of 13th-century, and is one of the minor Upanishads of Hinduism. The text ...
is a significant exception, which presents qualified dualistic and Vaishnavism
Vaishnavism ( sa, वैष्णवसम्प्रदायः, Vaiṣṇavasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu denominations along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism since it considers Vishnu as the ...
(Vishishtadvaita
Vishishtadvaita ( IAST '; sa, विशिष्टाद्वैत) is one of the most popular schools of the Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy. Vedanta literally means the in depth meaning ''of the Vedas.'' ''Vishisht Advaita'' (literal ...
Vedanta) philosophy.[Antonio Rigopoulos (1998), Dattatreya: The Immortal Guru, Yogin, and Avatara, State University of New York Press, , page 81 note 27]
See also
* Brahmacharya
* Grihastha
* Jangam Sannyasi
*Gymnosophist
Gymnosophists ( grc, γυμνοσοφισταί, ''gymnosophistaí'', i.e. "naked philosophers" or "naked wise men" (from Greek γυμνός ''gymnós'' "naked" and σοφία ''sophía'' "wisdom")) is the name given by the Greeks to certain anc ...
*Monk
A monk (, from el, μοναχός, ''monachos'', "single, solitary" via Latin ) is a person who practices religious asceticism by monastic living, either alone or with any number of other monks. A monk may be a person who decides to dedica ...
* Neo-sannyas
*Nun
A nun is a woman who vows to dedicate her life to religious service, typically living under vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience in the enclosure of a monastery or convent.''The Oxford English Dictionary'', vol. X, page 599. The term is o ...
*Purvashrama
Purvashrama ( sa, पूर्वाश्रम, ), is a term used with reference to Sanyasis. It refers to the ''ashrama'' (stage of life) of a Sannyasi, before he is initiated into Sannyasa (renunciation).
The word is also used to address fam ...
* Sanyasa yoga
* Swami Sharnanandji
*Vairāgya
Vairāgya (वैराग्य) is a Sanskrit term used in Hindu as well as Eastern philosophy that roughly translates as dispassion, detachment, or renunciation, in particular renunciation from the pains and pleasures in the temporary materi ...
* Vanaprastha
*Yogi
A yogi is a practitioner of Yoga, including a sannyasin or practitioner of meditation in Indian religions.A. K. Banerjea (2014), ''Philosophy of Gorakhnath with Goraksha-Vacana-Sangraha'', Motilal Banarsidass, , pp. xxiii, 297-299, 331 Th ...
Notes
References
Cited books:
*
External links
{{Commonscat
Articles on aspects of Sannyasa, Vairagya, and Brahmacharya
Vows Of Sannyasa
Saiva Siddhanta - Example covenant between a Hindu Sannyasin and a Hindu Monastic Order (PDF download)
Ashramas
Hindu asceticism
Hindu monasticism