![Maharajadhiraja Sri Samudragupta inscription on the Allahabad pillar Samudragupta inscription](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Maharajadhiraja_Sri_Samudragupta_inscription_on_the_Allahabad_pillar_Samudragupta_inscription.jpg)
Samudragupta (
Gupta script:
![Gupta_ashoka_s](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Gupta_ashoka_s.svg)
![Gupta allahabad mu](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/Gupta_allahabad_mu.jpg)
![Gupta allahabad dr](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/Gupta_allahabad_dr.jpg)
![Gupta allahabad gu](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Gupta_allahabad_gu.jpg)
![Gupta allahabad pt](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Gupta_allahabad_pt.jpg)
''Sa-mu-dra-gu-pta'', (c. 335–375 CE) was the second emperor of the
Gupta Empire
The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indian empire which existed from the early 4th century CE to late 6th century CE. At its zenith, from approximately 319 to 467 CE, it covered much of the Indian subcontinent. This period is considered as the Gold ...
of ancient India, and is regarded among the greatest rulers of the dynasty. As a son of the Gupta emperor
Chandragupta I
Chandragupta I (Gupta script: ''Cha-ndra-gu-pta'', r. c. 319–335 or 319–350 CE) was a king of the Gupta Empire, who ruled in northern and central India. His title ''Maharajadhiraja'' ("great king of kings") suggests that he was the firs ...
and the
Licchavi princess Kumaradevi, he greatly expanded his dynasty's political and military power.
The
Allahabad Pillar inscription, a ''
prashasti
''Prashasti'' (IAST: Praśasti, Sanskrit for "praise") is an Indian genre of inscriptions composed by poets in praise of their rulers. Most date from the 6th century CE onwards. Written in the form of poetry or ornate prose, the ''prashastis'' s ...
'' (eulogy) composed by his courtier
Harishena
Harishena () was the last known ruler of the Vatsagulma branch of the Vakataka dynasty
The Vakataka dynasty () was an ancient Indian dynasty that originated from the Deccan in the mid-3rd century CE. Their state is believed to have extende ...
, credits him with extensive military conquests. It suggests that he defeated several kings of northern India, and annexed their territories into his empire. He also marched along the south-eastern coast of India, advancing as far south as
Kanchipuram in the
Pallava kingdom. In addition, he subjugated several frontier kingdoms and tribal oligarchies. At the height of his power, his empire extended from
Ravi River
The Ravi River () is a transboundary river crossing northwestern India and eastern Pakistan. It is one of five rivers associated with the Punjab region.
Under the Indus Waters Treaty of 1960, the waters of the Ravi and two other rivers were ...
in the west (present-day
Punjab
Punjab (; Punjabi: پنجاب ; ਪੰਜਾਬ ; ; also romanised as ''Panjāb'' or ''Panj-Āb'') is a geopolitical, cultural, and historical region in South Asia, specifically in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, comprising a ...
) to the
Brahmaputra River in the east (present-day
Assam
Assam (; ) is a state in northeastern India, south of the eastern Himalayas along the Brahmaputra and Barak River valleys. Assam covers an area of . The state is bordered by Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh to the north; Nagaland and Manipur ...
), and from the Himalayan foothills in the north to central India in the south-west; several rulers along the south-eastern coast were also his tributaries. The inscription also states that many neighbouring rulers tried to please him, which probably refers to his friendly relations with them.
He performed the
Ashvamedha sacrifice to prove his imperial sovereignty and remained undefeated in battle. His gold coins and inscriptions suggest that he was an accomplished poet, and also played musical instruments such as the
veena
The ''veena'', also spelled ''vina'' ( sa, वीणा IAST: vīṇā), comprises various chordophone instruments from the Indian subcontinent. Ancient musical instruments evolved into many variations, such as lutes, zithers and arched harps ...
. His expansionist policy was continued by his son and successor
Chandragupta II.
Period
Modern scholars variously assign the start of Samudragupta's reign from c. 319 CE to c. 350 CE.
The inscriptions of the Gupta kings are dated in the
Gupta calendar era, whose
epoch
In chronology and periodization, an epoch or reference epoch is an instant in time chosen as the origin of a particular calendar era. The "epoch" serves as a reference point from which time is measured.
The moment of epoch is usually decided by ...
is generally dated to c. 319 CE. However, the identity of the era's founder is a matter of debate, and scholars variously attribute its establishment to Chandragupta I or Samudragupta. Chandragupta I probably had a long reign, as the Prayag Pillar inscription suggests that he appointed his son as his successor, presumably after reaching an old age. However, the exact period of his reign is uncertain. For these reasons, the beginning of Samudragupta's reign is also uncertain.
If Samudragupta is regarded as the founder of the Gupta era, his ascension can be dated to c. 319-320 CE. On the other hand, if his father Chandragupta I is regarded as the founder of the Gupta era, Samudragupta's ascension must be dated to a later date. Samudragupta was a contemporary of King
Meghavarna of
Anuradhapura Kingdom, but the regnal period of this king is also uncertain. According to the
traditional reckoning adopted in
Sri Lanka for
Buddha
Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism.
According to Buddhist tradition, he was born in L ...
's death, he ruled during 304-332 CE; but the modified chronology adopted by modern scholars such as
Wilhelm Geiger
Wilhelm Ludwig Geiger (; ; 21 July 1856 – 2 September 1943) was a German Orientalist in the fields of Indo-Iranian languages and the history of Iran and Sri Lanka. He was known as a specialist in Pali, Sinhala language and the Dhivehi language ...
assigns his reign to 352-379 CE. Accepting the former date would place Samudragupta's ascension to c. 320 CE; accepting the latter date would place it around c. 350 CE.
The end of Samudragupta's reign is also uncertain. Samudragupta's granddaughter
Prabhavatigupta
Prabhavatigupta (died ), was a Gupta princess and Vakataka queen who was the consort of Maharaja Rudrasena II. Following the death of her husband, she effectively ruled the Vakataka kingdom as regent from about 390 to 410.
Early life
Prabhava ...
is known to have married during the reign of his son
Chandragupta II, in c. 380 CE (assuming c. 319 CE as the epoch of the Gupta era). Therefore, the end of Samudragupta's reign can be placed before this year.
Various estimates of Samudragupta's regnal period include:
*
A. S. Altekar: c. 330-370 CE
*
A. L. Basham
Arthur Llewellyn Basham (24 May 1914 – 27 January 1986) was a noted historian, Indologist and author of a number of books. As a Professor at the School of Oriental and African Studies, London in the 1950s and the 1960s, he taught a number of ...
: c. 335-376 CE
* S. R. Goyal: c. 350-375 CE
* Tej Ram Sharma: c. 353-373 CE
Ascension
Samudragupta was a son of the Gupta emperor
Chandragupta I
Chandragupta I (Gupta script: ''Cha-ndra-gu-pta'', r. c. 319–335 or 319–350 CE) was a king of the Gupta Empire, who ruled in northern and central India. His title ''Maharajadhiraja'' ("great king of kings") suggests that he was the firs ...
and Queen Kumaradevi, who came from the
Licchavi clan. His fragmentary
Eran
Eran is an ancient town and archaeological site in the Sagar district of Madhya Pradesh, India. It was one of the ancient mints for Indian dynasties as evidenced by the diverse coins excavated here. The site has 5th and 6th-century Gupta era ...
stone inscription states that his father selected him as the successor because of his "devotion, righteous conduct, and valour". His
Allahabad Pillar inscription similarly describes how Chandragupta I called him a noble person in front of the courtiers, and appointed him to "protect the earth". These descriptions suggest that Chandragupta I renounced the throne in his old age, and appointed his son as the next emperor.
According to the Allahabad Pillar inscription, when Chandragupta I appointed him as the next emperor, the faces of other people of "equal birth" bore a "melancholy look". One interpretation suggests that these other people were neighbouring kings, and Samudagupta's ascension to the throne was uncontested. Another theory is that these other people were Gupta princes with a rival claim to the throne. If Emperor Chandragputa I indeed had multiple sons, it is likely that Samudragupta's background as the son of a Lichchhavi princess worked in his favour.
The coins of a Gupta ruler named
Kacha, whose identity is debated by modern scholars, describe him as "the exterminator of all kings". These coins closely resemble the coins issued by Samudragupta. According to one theory, Kacha was an earlier name of Samudragupta and the emperor later adopted the regnal name Samudra ("Ocean"), after extending his empire's dominion as far as the ocean. An alternative theory is that Kacha was a distinct king (possibly a rival claimant to the throne) who flourished before or after Samudragupta.
Military career
![South Asia historical AD375 EN](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/South_Asia_historical_AD375_EN.svg)
The Gupta inscriptions suggest that Samudragupta had a remarkable military career. The Eran stone inscription of Samudragupta states that he had brought "the whole tribe of kings" under his suzerainty, and that his enemies were terrified when they thought of him in their dreams. The inscription does not name any of the defeated kings (presumably because its primary objective was to record the installation of a
Vishnu
Vishnu ( ; , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism.
Vishnu is known as "The Preserver" withi ...
idol in a temple), but it suggests that Samudragupta had subdued several kings by this time. The later
Allahabad Pillar inscription, a
panegyric written by Samudragupta's minister and military officer
Harishena
Harishena () was the last known ruler of the Vatsagulma branch of the Vakataka dynasty
The Vakataka dynasty () was an ancient Indian dynasty that originated from the Deccan in the mid-3rd century CE. Their state is believed to have extende ...
, credits him with extensive conquests. It gives the most detailed account of Samudragupta's military conquests, listing them in mainly geographical and partly chronological order. It states that Samudragupta fought a hundred battles, acquired a hundred wounds that looked like marks of glory, and earned the title ''Prakrama'' (valourous). The Mathura stone inscription of
Chandragupta II describes Samudragupta as an "exterminator of all kings", as someone who had no equally powerful enemy, and as a person whose "fame was tasted by the waters of the four oceans".
Modern scholars offer various opinions regarding Samudragupta's possible motivations behind his extensive military campaigns. The Allahabad Pillar inscription suggests that Samudragupta's aim was the unification of the earth (''dharani-bandha''), which suggests that he may have aspired to become a
Chakravartin
A ''chakravarti'' ( sa, चक्रवर्तिन्, ''cakravartin''; pi, cakkavatti; zh, 轉輪王, ''Zhuǎnlúnwáng'', "Wheel-Turning King"; , ''Zhuǎnlún Shèngwáng'', "Wheel-Turning Sacred King"; ja, 転輪王, ''Tenrin'ō'' ...
(a universal ruler). The
Ashvamedha performances by the
Nagas, whom he defeated, may have influenced him as well. His southern expedition may have been motivated by economic considerations of controlling the trade between India and South-East Asia.
Early victories
The early portion of the
Allahabad Pillar inscription mentions that Samudragupta "uprooted"
Achyuta
In Hinduism, Achyuta (IAST: ') is an epithet of Vishnu and appears as the 100th and 318th names in the Vishnu Sahasranama. It is also often used in the Bhagavad Gita as a personal name of Krishna. According to Adi Shankara's commentary on the ...
,
Nagasena
Nāgasena was a Sarvastivadan Buddhist sage who lived around 150 BC. His answers to questions about Buddhism posed by Menander I (Pali: ''Milinda''), the Indo-Greek king of northwestern India, are recorded in the '' Milinda Pañha'' and the Sa ...
, and a ruler whose name is lost in the damaged portion of the inscription. The third name ends in "-ga", and is generally restored as Ganapati-naga, because Achyuta-nandin (presumably same as Achyuta), Nagasena, and Ganapati-naga are once again mentioned in the later part of the inscription, among the kings of
Aryavarta (northern India) defeated by Samudragupta. These kings are identified as the rulers of present-day western
Uttar Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh (; , 'Northern Province') is a state in northern India. With over 200 million inhabitants, it is the most populated state in India as well as the most populous country subdivision in the world. It was established in 1950 ...
(
see below). According to the inscription, Samudragupta reinstated these rulers after they sought his forgiveness.
It is not clear why the names of these three kings is repeated later in the inscription. According to one theory, these three kings were vassal rulers who rebelled against Samudragupta after the death of his father. Samudragupta crushed the rebellion, and reinstated them after they sought his forgiveness. Later, these rulers rebelled once more, and Samudragupta defeated them again. Another possibility is that the author of the inscription thought it necessary to repeat these names while describing Samudragupta's later conquests in Aryavarta, simply because these kings belonged to that region.
Samudragupta dispatched an army to capture the scion of the Kota family, whose identity is uncertain. The Kotas may have been the rulers of present-day
Punjab
Punjab (; Punjabi: پنجاب ; ਪੰਜਾਬ ; ; also romanised as ''Panjāb'' or ''Panj-Āb'') is a geopolitical, cultural, and historical region in South Asia, specifically in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, comprising a ...
, where coins bearing the legend "Kota", and featuring a symbol of
Shiva
Shiva (; sa, शिव, lit=The Auspicious One, Śiva ), also known as Mahadeva (; ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐ, or Hara, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions within Hindu ...
and his
bull
A bull is an intact (i.e., not castrated) adult male of the species ''Bos taurus'' (cattle). More muscular and aggressive than the females of the same species (i.e., cows), bulls have long been an important symbol in many religions,
includin ...
, have been discovered.
The inscription states that the Gupta army captured the Kota ruler, while Samudragupta himself "played" (or pleased himself) in a city called Pushpa (the name Pushpa-pura referred to
Pataliputra
Pataliputra ( IAST: ), adjacent to modern-day Patna, was a city in ancient India, originally built by Magadha ruler Ajatashatru in 490 BCE as a small fort () near the Ganges river.. Udayin laid the foundation of the city of Pataliputra at the ...
at Samudragupta's time, although it came to be used for
Kanyakubja
Kannauj ( Hindustani pronunciation: ənːɔːd͡ʒ is a city, administrative headquarters and a municipal board or Nagar Palika Parishad in Kannauj district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. The city's name is a corrupted form of the c ...
in the later period). Modern scholars have interpreted the word "played" in various ways: According to one theory, this portion describes Samudragupta's achievements as a prince. An alternative interpretation is that Samudragupta dispatched his army on these campaigns, while he himself stayed at the capital. It is also possible that the poet intended to convey that these campaigns were minor affairs that did not require the king's direct involvement at the battlefront.
Southern conquests
According to the Allahabad Pillar inscription, Samudragupta captured (and later released) the following kings of
Dakshinapatha __NOTOC__
Dakshinapatha is an important historical region which is an ancient equivalent of present day South India or Deccan plateau and which may mean;
*the "Ancient South of the Indian subcontinent" below Uttarapatha. The term can encompass ...
, the southern region:
The exact identification of several of these kings is debated among modern scholars, but it is clear that these kings ruled areas located on the eastern coast of India. Samudragupta most probably passed through the forest tract of central India, reached the eastern coast in present-day
Odisha
Odisha (English: , ), formerly Orissa ( the official name until 2011), is an Indian state located in Eastern India. It is the 8th largest state by area, and the 11th largest by population. The state has the third largest population of ...
, and then marched south along the coast of
Bay of Bengal
The Bay of Bengal is the northeastern part of the Indian Ocean, bounded on the west and northwest by India, on the north by Bangladesh, and on the east by Myanmar and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India. Its southern limit is a line betwee ...
.
![Allahabad inscription of Samudragupta](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Allahabad_inscription_of_Samudragupta.jpg)
The inscription states that Samudragupta later released these kings, and favoured (''anugraha'') them. Most modern scholars theorize that Samudragupta reinstated these rulers as his
tributaries
A tributary, or affluent, is a stream or river that flows into a larger stream or main stem (or parent) river or a lake. A tributary does not flow directly into a sea or ocean. Tributaries and the main stem river drain the surrounding drainag ...
.
M. G. S. Narayanan interprets the word ''anugraha'' differently based on its occurrence in the ''
Arthashastra''; he theorizes that Samudragupta gave "protection and aid" to these kingdoms in order to secure their alliances.
Some scholars, such as
J. Dubreuil and B. V. Krishnarao, theorized that Samudragupta only advanced up to the
Krishna river, and was forced to retreat without fighting a battle, when the southern kings formed a strong confederacy to oppose him. According to these scholars, the claim that Samudragupta released these kings is an attempt by Samudragupta's courtier to cover up the emperor's failure. However, there is no evidence of the southern kings forming a confederacy against Samudragupta. Historian Ashvini Agrawal notes that setting free a captured king is inline with the ancient Indian political ideals. For example, Kautilya defines three types of conquerors: the righteous conqueror (''dharma-vijayi''), who restores the defeated king in exchange for his acknowledgment of the conqueror's suzerainty; the covetous conqueror (''lobha-vijayi''), who takes away the possessions of the defeated king but spares his life; and the demoniac conqueror (''asura-vijayi''), who annexes the territory of the defeated king and kills him. Such political ideals existed in the Gupta period too, as evident from
Kalidasa's statement in ''
Raghuvamsha'' that "the righteous victorious monarch (
Raghu
Raghu () is a ruler of the Suryavamsha dynasty in Hinduism. According to the '' Raghuvamsha'', he is the son of King Dilīpa and Queen Sudakshina. His successors styled themselves as belonging to the eponymous Raghuvamsha dynasty, or the ' ...
) only took away the royal glory of the lord of Mahendra who had been captured and released, but not his kingdom." Therefore, it is likely that Samudragupta acted like a righteous conqueror, and restored the defeated kings as his vassals.
;
Mahendra of Kosala
: Kosala here refers to
Dakshina Kosala, which includes parts of present-day
Chhattisgarh and
Odisha
Odisha (English: , ), formerly Orissa ( the official name until 2011), is an Indian state located in Eastern India. It is the 8th largest state by area, and the 11th largest by population. The state has the third largest population of ...
. One theory identifies
Mahendra of Kosala with a
Nala king named Mahendraditya.
; Vyaghra-raja of Mahakantara
: Historian
K. P. Jayaswal
Kashi Prasad Jayaswal (27 November 1881 – 4 August 1937) was an Indian historian and lawyer. Jayaswal's works ''Hindu Polity'' (1918) and ''History of India, 150 A.D. to 350 A.D.'' (1933) are classics of ancient Indian historical literature. A ...
identifies Mahakantara (literally "great wilderness") as the
Bastar-
Kanker area in present-day
Chhattisgarh. According to another theory, Mahakantara is same as Mahavana, a synonym used as the name for the forest region around present-day
Jeypore of Odisha.
: Earlier historians identified Mahakantara as a region in central India, and identified Vyaghra-raja with the
Vakataka
The Vakataka dynasty () was an ancient Indian dynasty that originated from the Deccan in the mid-3rd century CE. Their state is believed to have extended from the southern edges of Malwa and Gujarat in the north to the Tungabhadra River in th ...
feudatory Vyaghra-deva, whose inscriptions have been found at
Nachna. However, this identification is now considered incorrect, as Samudragupta is not known to have fought against the Vakatakas.
; Mantaraja of Kurala
: The Rawan inscription of the
Sharabhapuriya king Narendra, who ruled in the
Dakshina Kosala region, mentions an area called Mantaraja-bhukti ("the province of Mantaraja"). Therefore, some historians such as K. D. Bajpai theorize that Mantaraja was a king who ruled in the Dakshina Kosala region. Historian
A. M. Shastri
Ajay Mitra Shastri (5 March 1934 – 11 January 2002) was an Indian academic, historian and numismatist associated with the Nagpur University.
Early life and education
A. M. Shastri was born on 5 March 1934 at Guna in Central India Agency, ...
disputes this theory, arguing that the ruler of Kosala (that is, Dakshina Kosala) has been mentioned separately in the Allahabad Pillar inscription.
:
Lorenz Franz Kielhorn
Lorenz Franz Kielhorn (31 May 1840, Osnabrück - 19 March 1908, Göttingen) was a German Indologist.
He studied under Theodor Benfey at the University of Göttingen, where he became member of Burschenschaft Hannovera (fraternity), and under Adol ...
speculated that Kurala was same as Kaurala (or Kunala) mentioned in the
Aihole
Aihole (pronounced "Eye-hoḷé"), also referred to as Aivalli, Ahivolal or Aryapura, is a historic site of ancient and medieval era Buddhist, Hindu and Jain monuments in Karnataka, India that dates from the sixth century through the twelfth ...
inscription of the 7th century king
Pulakeshin II, and identified it as the area around the
Kolleru Lake
Kolleru Lake is one of the largest freshwater lakes in India located in state of Andhra Pradesh and forms the largest shallow freshwater lake in Asia (with 245 km2 of lake area and 302 km2 of total Ramsar designated wetland), 15 kilometers aw ...
in present-day
Andhra Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh (, abbr. AP) is a state in the south-eastern coastal region of India. It is the seventh-largest state by area covering an area of and tenth-most populous state with 49,386,799 inhabitants. It is bordered by Telangana to the ...
.
H. C. Raychaudhuri disputes this identification, pointing out that this region was a part of Hastivarman's Vengi kingdom, which has been mentioned separately in the Allahabad Pillar inscription.
: Other proposed identifications of Kurala include Kolada near
Bhanjanagar (former Russelkonda) in Odisha; and Kulula, a region mentioned in the
Mahendragiri inscription of the 11th century king
Rajendra Chola
Rajendra Chola I (; Middle Tamil: Rājēntira Cōḻaṉ; Classical Sanskrit: Rājēndradēva Cōla; Old Malay: ''Raja Suran''; c. 971 CE – 1044 CE), often referred to as Rajendra the Great, and also known as Gangaikonda Chola (Middle Tami ...
, and identified with Cherla in present-day Telangana.
; Mahendragiri of Pishtapura
: Pishtapura is modern
Pithapuram
Pithapuram, historically known as Pittapore, is a town and a municipality in the Kakinada district in the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. The town also forms a part of Godavari Urban Development Authority. The town is home to one of the eighteen ...
in Andhra Pradesh. The word ''giri'' mentions hill in Sanskrit, and therefore,
J. F. Fleet speculated that "Mahendragiri" could not have been a person's name: he suggested that the verse (''Mahendragiri-Kautturaka-Svamidatta'') referred to a king called "Mahendra", and a place called "Kottura on the hill" which was ruled by Svamidatta. However, Fleet's translation is incorrect: the verse clearly mentions Mahendragiri of Pishtapura and Svamidatta of Kottura as two distinct persons. G. Ramdas interpreted the verse to mean Svamidatta was the ruler of Pishtapura and "Kottura near Mahendragiri", while
Bhau Daji
Ramachandra Vitthal Lad (1824–1874), commonly known as Bhau Daji Lad was an Indian physician, Sanskrit scholar, and an antiquarian.
Early life and education
Lad was born in 1822 in a Gaud Saraswat Brahmin family in Mandrem (Manjari) Goa. ...
translated it as "Svamidatta of Pishtapura, Mahendragiri and Kottura". However, these translations are also incorrect. The concern about the king's name is invalid: several historical records mention names ending in the word ''giri'' or its synonym ''adri''.
; Svamidatta of Kottura
: Svamidatta was probably one of the chiefs who resisted Samudragupta's passage through the
Kalinga Kalinga may refer to:
Geography, linguistics and/or ethnology
* Kalinga (historical region), a historical region of India
** Kalinga (Mahabharata), an apocryphal kingdom mentioned in classical Indian literature
** Kalinga script, an ancient writ ...
region. Kottura has been identified with modern Kotturu (or Kothur) in
Srikakulam district, Andhra Pradesh (near
Paralakhemundi
Paralakhemundi shortly known as Parala is district Headquarter of Gajapati district and one of the oldest Municipality established in 1885, in the Indian state of Odisha. Majority of the people in the town speak Odia. The city and the Distri ...
, Odisha). Alternative proposals identify it with other similarly named places in present-day Andhra Pradesh.
; Damana of Erandapalla
: Proposed identifications of Erandapalla include Errandapali near
Srikakulam, a town near
Mukhalingam, Yendipalli in
Visakhapatnam district
Visakhapatnam district (formerly known as Vizagapatam district) is one of the six districts in the Uttarandhra region of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh, headquartered at Visakhapatnam. It is one of the twenty-six districts in Andhra Prad ...
, and Endipalli in
West Godavari district.
;
Vishnugopa
Vishnugopa (IAST: Viṣṇugopa) was a Pallava king of Kanchi. He was the son of Buddhavarman.
He was one of the kings defeated by Gupta Emperor Samudragupta during his southern expedition. Mayurasharma established Kadamba dynasty taking advant ...
of Kanchi
:
Vishnugopa
Vishnugopa (IAST: Viṣṇugopa) was a Pallava king of Kanchi. He was the son of Buddhavarman.
He was one of the kings defeated by Gupta Emperor Samudragupta during his southern expedition. Mayurasharma established Kadamba dynasty taking advant ...
is identified as the
Pallava ruler of
Kanchipuram: Samudragupta's invasion probably occurred when he acted as a regent for his nephew Skandavarman III.
; Nilaraja of Avamukta
: The identity of Avamukta is uncertain. The ''Brahmanda Purana'' mentions an area called "Avimukta-kshetra", located on the banks of the Gautami river (that is,
Godavari
The Godavari (IAST: ''Godāvarī'' od̪aːʋəɾiː is India's second longest river after the Ganga river and drains into the third largest basin in India, covering about 10% of India's total geographical area. Its source is in Trimbakeshwa ...
), which may be identified with Avamukta of Samudragupta's inscription. Some historical texts use the name Avamukta-kshetra for the region around
Varanasi
Varanasi (; ; also Banaras or Benares (; ), and Kashi.) is a city on the Ganges river in northern India that has a central place in the traditions of pilgrimage, death, and mourning in the Hindu world.
*
*
*
* The city has a syncretic t ...
, but Varanasi is not located in Dakshinapatha, and therefore, was certainly not the Avamukta mentioned in the inscription.
; Hastivarman of Vengi
: Hastivarman was the
Shalankayana
The Salankayana ( IAST: Śālaṇkāyana) dynasty of ancient India ruled a part of Andhra region in India from 300 to 440 CE. Their territory was located between the Godavari and the Krishna rivers. Their capital was located at Vengi, modern Pedav ...
king of
Vengi
Vengi (or Venginadu) is a delta region spread over the Krishna and Godavari River, (also called Godavari and Krishna districts), the region is also known as Godavari Delta, that used to house world famous diamond mines in the Medieval period ...
(modern
Pedavegi
Pedavegi is a village in Eluru district in the state of Andhra Pradesh in India, 10 km north of Eluru. It is administered under Eluru revenue division
Eluru revenue division (or Eluru division) is an administrative division in the Eluru dist ...
) in Andhra Pradesh.
; Ugrasena of Palakka
:
J. Dubreuil identified Palakka with the place referred to as Palakkada in several
Pallava inscriptions; this location was probably the headquarters of a Pallava viceroyalty. For example, the Uruvapalli grant inscription of ''Yuva-maharaja'' (Prince) Vishnugopa-varman was issued from Palakkada.
: G. Ramdas identified it with Pakkai located between
Udayagiri and
Venkatagiri
Venkatagiri is a town in Tirupati district of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. It is a municipality and mandals headquarters of Venkatagiri mandal. Venkatagiri's old name is "Kali Mili". It is famous for its Handloom Cotton Sarees. Venkatagi ...
in the Nellore district, and theorized that it was same as the place referred to as Paka-nadu, Panka-nadu, or Pakai-nadu in the inscriptions of the 10th century Chola king
Rajaraja I.
; Kubera of Devarashtra
: According to one theory, Deva-rashtra was located in the historical Kalinga region of present-day northern
Andhra Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh (, abbr. AP) is a state in the south-eastern coastal region of India. It is the seventh-largest state by area covering an area of and tenth-most populous state with 49,386,799 inhabitants. It is bordered by Telangana to the ...
. The
Srungavarapukota inscription of the
Vasishtha
Vasishtha ( sa, वसिष्ठ, IAST: ') is one of the oldest and most revered Vedic rishis or sages, and one of the Saptarishis (seven great Rishis). Vashistha is credited as the chief author of Mandala 7 of the ''Rigveda''. Vashishtha a ...
king Anantavarman, issued from
Pishtapura in this area, describes his grandfather Gunavarman as ''Deva-rashtradhipati'' ("Lord of Deva-rashtra"). The
Kasimkota inscription of the 10th century
Vengi Chalukya king Bhima I mentions a ''
vishaya A vishaya (IAST: Viṣaya) was a historical administrative unit of India, generally equivalent to a modern district.
Several other terms for units equivalent to a modern district appear in historical inscriptions, including ''āhāra'', ''rashtra'' ...
'' (district) called Deva-rashtra in Kalinga. Based on this,
J. Dubreuil identified Devarashtra as a location in the present-day
Yelamanchili taluka
A tehsil (, also known as tahsil, taluka, or taluk) is a local unit of administrative division in some countries of South Asia. It is a subdistrict of the area within a district including the designated populated place that serves as its administr ...
of Andhra Pradesh. During Samudragupta's period, the Kalinga region appears to have been divided among several small kingdoms, which may have included Kottura, Pishtapura, and Devarashtra.
; Dhananjaya of Kusthalapura
: B. V. Krishnarao speculated that Dhananjaya of Samudragupta's inscription may be same as the Dhananjaya from whom the chieftains of
Dhanyakataka
Dharanikota is a village in Palnadu district of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. It is located in Amaravathi mandal of Guntur revenue division. The village forms a part of Andhra Pradesh Capital Region, under the jurisdiction of APCRDA.
Hi ...
(modern Dharanikota in Andhra Pradesh) claimed descent. He identified Kusthalapura with modern Kolanupaka (or Kollipak) located on the banks of the Aleru River in present-day
Telangana
Telangana (; , ) is a state in India situated on the south-central stretch of the Indian peninsula on the high Deccan Plateau. It is the eleventh-largest state and the twelfth-most populated state in India with a geographical area of and 3 ...
. Another theory identifies Kusthalapura with a tract around the Kushasthali river near
Dakshina Kosala.
Northern conquests
According to the
Allahabad Pillar inscription, Samudragupta "forcibly uprooted" the following kings of
Aryavarta, the northern region:
Unlike the southern kings, the inscription does not mention the territories ruled by these kings, which suggests that their kingdoms were annexed to the Gupta empire. The inscription also mentions that Samudragupta defeated some other kings, but does not mention their names, presumably because the poet saw them as unimportant.
; Rudradeva
: Rudradeva may be same as a king named Rudra, whose coin has been found at
Kaushambi. Another theory identifies Rudradeva with a
Western Kshatrapa
The Western Satraps, or Western Kshatrapas ( Brahmi:, ''Mahakṣatrapa'', "Great Satraps") were Indo-Scythian ( Saka) rulers of the western and central part of India ( Saurashtra and Malwa: modern Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Madhya Pr ...
(Shaka) king of
Ujjain
Ujjain (, Hindustani pronunciation: d͡ːʒɛːn is a city in Ujjain district of the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. It is the fifth-largest city in Madhya Pradesh by population and is the administrative centre of Ujjain district and Ujjain ...
, either Rudradaman II or Rudrasena III.
: Some earlier scholars, such as
K. N. Dikshit
Rao Bahadur Kashinath Narayan Dikshit (21 October 1889 – 12 August 1946) was an Indian archaeologist who served as Director-general of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) from 1937 to 1944.
Early life and education
Dikshit was born ...
and
K. P. Jayaswal
Kashi Prasad Jayaswal (27 November 1881 – 4 August 1937) was an Indian historian and lawyer. Jayaswal's works ''Hindu Polity'' (1918) and ''History of India, 150 A.D. to 350 A.D.'' (1933) are classics of ancient Indian historical literature. A ...
, identified Rudradeva with the
Vakataka
The Vakataka dynasty () was an ancient Indian dynasty that originated from the Deccan in the mid-3rd century CE. Their state is believed to have extended from the southern edges of Malwa and Gujarat in the north to the Tungabhadra River in th ...
king
Rudrasena I. However, this identification seems to be inaccurate, because Samudragupta's inscription explicitly mentions Rudradeva as a king of the northern region (Aryavarta), while the Vakatakas ruled in the southern region (Dakshinapatha). An argument cited in support of this identification is that Rudrasena bore the title ''
Maharaja
Mahārāja (; also spelled Maharajah, Maharaj) is a Sanskrit title for a "great ruler", "great king" or " high king".
A few ruled states informally called empires, including ruler raja Sri Gupta, founder of the ancient Indian Gupta Empire, a ...
'' ("great king") as opposed to ''samrat'' ("emperor"), signifying his subordinate status to Samudragupta. However, multiple sovereign Vakataka kings bore the title ''Maharaja'': only
Pravarasena I
Pravarasena () was the successor of Vindhyashakti, the founder of the Vakataka dynasty. He was the first and only Vakataka ruler to be called ''Samrāṭ'', meaning emperor or universal ruler. It was probably under his reign that the Vakataka ...
assumed the title ''samrat'' after performing a ''vajapeya'' ritual sacrifice. An inscription of Rudrasena's descendant Prithvishena II mentions that the Vakataka kingdom had been prospering for a hundred years, suggesting that the Vakataka rule remained uninterrupted during Rudrasena's reign.
; Matila
: The identity of Matila is not certain. Earlier, Matila was identified with Mattila, who is known from a
terracotta
Terracotta, terra cotta, or terra-cotta (; ; ), in its material sense as an earthenware substrate, is a clay-based unglazed or glazed ceramic where the fired body is porous.
In applied art, craft, construction, and architecture, terracotta ...
seal discovered at
Bulandshahr
Bulandshahr, formerly Baran, is a city and a municipal board in Bulandshahr district in the state of Uttar Pradesh, India. It is the administrative headquarters of Bulandshahr district and part of Delhi NCR region. According to the Governmen ...
. However, there is no evidence that this Mattila was a ruler, and epigraphist Jagannath Agrawal has dated the seal to the 6th century on
palaeographic
Palaeography ( UK) or paleography ( US; ultimately from grc-gre, , ''palaiós'', "old", and , ''gráphein'', "to write") is the study of historic writing systems and the deciphering and dating of historical manuscripts, including the analysi ...
basis.
; Nagadatta
: Nagadatta is not known from any other inscriptions or coins, but his name has led to suggestions that he may have been the ruler of a
Naga
Naga or NAGA may refer to:
Mythology
* Nāga, a serpentine deity or race in Hindu, Buddhist and Jain traditions
* Naga Kingdom, in the epic ''Mahabharata''
* Phaya Naga, mythical creatures believed to live in the Laotian stretch of the Mekong Riv ...
branch. D. C. Sircar theorized that he was an ancestor of a family of Gupta viceroys, whose names ended in -datta. Tej Ram Sharma speculates that he may have been a Naga ruler, whose successors were sent as Gupta viceroys in Bengal after the family accepted the Gupta suzerainty.
; Chandravarman
: Chandravarman of Samudragupta's inscription has been identified with
Chandravarman
Chandravarman (4th century CE) was a king of the Pushkarana kingdom in the Bankura district of West Bengal.Ancient Indian History and Civilization, Sailendra Nath Sen, New Age International, 1999p.274/ref>A History of Ancient and Early Medieval ...
, the ruler of Pushkarana (modern
Pakhanna
Pakhanna (or Pokharna) is a village in the Barjora police station area of Bankura Sadar subdivision of Bankura district in the Indian state of West Bengal. It is located north-east of Susunia, on the south bank of Damodar River.Ghosh, Binoy, ...
) in present-day
West Bengal
West Bengal (, Bengali: ''Poshchim Bongo'', , abbr. WB) is a state in the eastern portion of India. It is situated along the Bay of Bengal, along with a population of over 91 million inhabitants within an area of . West Bengal is the fou ...
. P. L. Gupta and some earlier scholars have identified this ruler with another Chandravarman, who has been mentioned in an inscription discovered at
Mandsaur
Mandsaur is a city and a municipality in Mandsaur district located on Border of Mewar and Malwa region of Madhya Pradesh state of central India. It is the administrative headquarters of Mandsaur District. The ancient Pashupatinath Temple is l ...
in present-day
Madhya Pradesh
Madhya Pradesh (, ; meaning 'central province') is a state in central India. Its capital is Bhopal, and the largest city is Indore, with Jabalpur, Ujjain, Gwalior, Sagar, and Rewa being the other major cities. Madhya Pradesh is the seco ...
. Tej Ram Sharma disputes this identification, arguing that Samudragupta "exterminated" all kings of Aryavarta and annexed their territories, as suggested by the Allahabad Pillar inscription; however, Naravarman - a brother of Chandravarman of Mandsaur - is known to have been ruling as a feudatory in 404 CE.
; Ganapatinaga
: Ganapati-naga is identified as a
Naga
Naga or NAGA may refer to:
Mythology
* Nāga, a serpentine deity or race in Hindu, Buddhist and Jain traditions
* Naga Kingdom, in the epic ''Mahabharata''
* Phaya Naga, mythical creatures believed to live in the Laotian stretch of the Mekong Riv ...
king. Several coins bearing the legend Ganapati have been discovered at
Padmavati
Padmāvatī may refer to:
Deities
* Lakshmi, the Hindu goddess of fortune
* Alamelu, or Padmāvatī, a Hindu goddess and consort of Sri Venkateshwara of Tirupati
* Manasa, a Hindu serpent goddess
* Padmavati (Jainism), a Jain attendant goddess ( ...
,
Vidisha
Vidisha (विदिशा, formerly known as Bhelsa and known as Besnagar in ancient times) is a city in central Madhya Pradesh, India. It is located 62.5 km northeast of the state capital, Bhopal. The name "Vidisha" is derived from th ...
, and
Mathura
Mathura () is a city and the administrative headquarters of Mathura district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It is located approximately north of Agra, and south-east of Delhi; about from the town of Vrindavan, and from Govardhan. ...
. Although these coins do not bear the suffix "naga", they are similar to the ones issued by the other Naga kings such as Skanda-naga, Brihaspati-naga, and Deva-naga. Since hundreds of Ganapati's coins have been found at Mathura, it appears that he was the ruler of a Naga branch headquartered at Mathura.
; Nagasena
: The 7th century text ''
Harshacharita
The ''Harshacharita'' ( sa, हर्षचरित, ) (''The deeds of Harsha''), is the biography of Indian emperor Harsha by Banabhatta, also known as Bana, who was a Sanskrit writer of seventh-century CE India. He was the ''Asthana Kavi'', ...
'' refers to the
Naga
Naga or NAGA may refer to:
Mythology
* Nāga, a serpentine deity or race in Hindu, Buddhist and Jain traditions
* Naga Kingdom, in the epic ''Mahabharata''
* Phaya Naga, mythical creatures believed to live in the Laotian stretch of the Mekong Riv ...
king Nagasena, who "met with his doom in Padmavati, as his secret plan was divulged by a ''
sarika
Sarika Thakur is an Indian actress and costume designer. In 2005, she won the National Film Award for Best Actress for the English-language film '' Parzania''. She was also awarded the National Film Award for Best Costume Design for her work ...
'' bird". Assuming this describes a historical person, it appears that Nagasena was the ruler of a Naga branch headquartered at Padmavati in present-day
Madhya Pradesh
Madhya Pradesh (, ; meaning 'central province') is a state in central India. Its capital is Bhopal, and the largest city is Indore, with Jabalpur, Ujjain, Gwalior, Sagar, and Rewa being the other major cities. Madhya Pradesh is the seco ...
.
; Achyuta-nandin
: Achyuta-nandin seems to be same as Achyuta, who is mentioned earlier in the inscription; his name may have been shortened in the earlier verses for
metrical purposes. An alternatively theory identifies Achyuta and Nandin as two distinct kings.
: Achyuta was the ruler of
Ahichchhatra in present-day Uttar Pradesh, where coins attributed to him have been discovered. These coins bear the legend "Achyu", and are similar to the coins issued by the Naga rulers. This has led to suggestions that the Achyuta-nandin defeated by Samudragupta was the ruler of a Naga branch headquartered at Ahichhatra.
; Balavarman
: V. V. Mirashi identified Bala-varman (or Balavarma) as a ruler of the Magha dynasty of
Kosambi
Kosambi (Pali) or Kaushambi (Sanskrit) was an important city in ancient India. It was the capital of the Vatsa kingdom, one of the sixteen mahajanapadas. It was located on the Yamuna River about southwest of its confluence with the Ganges a ...
. U. N. Roy suggested that Bala-varman may have been an ancestor of the
Maukhari
The Maukhari dynasty (Gupta script: , ''Mau-kha-ri'') was a post-Gupta dynasty who controlled the vast plains of Ganga-Yamuna for over six generations from their capital at Kannauj. They earlier served as vassals of the Guptas and later of Harsha ...
kings, who initially served as Gupta vassals, and whose names ended in -varman. Another theory identifies him with the successor of Shridhara-varman, the
Shaka
Shaka kaSenzangakhona ( – 22 September 1828), also known as Shaka Zulu () and Sigidi kaSenzangakhona, was the king of the Zulu Kingdom from 1816 to 1828. One of the most influential monarchs of the Zulu, he ordered wide-reaching reforms that ...
ruler of
Eran
Eran is an ancient town and archaeological site in the Sagar district of Madhya Pradesh, India. It was one of the ancient mints for Indian dynasties as evidenced by the diverse coins excavated here. The site has 5th and 6th-century Gupta era ...
. Samudragupta may have ended the dynasty of Eran, as suggested by the discovery of his inscription at Eran.
: K. N. Dikshit identified Balavarman with
Balavarman, a ruler of the
Varman dynasty
The Varman dynasty (350–650) was the first historical dynasty of the Kamarupa kingdom. It was established by Pushyavarman, a contemporary of Samudragupta. The earlier Varmans were subordinates of the Gupta Empire, but as the power of the Gu ...
of
Kamarupa; however, Balavarman was not a contemporary of Samudragupta. Moreover, Kamarupa has been mentioned as a distinct frontier kingdom later on in the Allahabad Pillar inscription.
Conquests in the forest region
According to the Allahabad Pillar inscription, Samudragupta reduced all the kings of the forest region (''atavika'') to subservience. This forest region may have been located in central India: the inscriptions of the
Parivrajaka dynasty
The Parivrajaka (IAST: Parivrājaka) dynasty ruled parts of central India during 5th and 6th centuries. The kings of this dynasty bore the title Maharaja, and probably ruled as feudatories of the Gupta Empire. The dynasty is known from inscr ...
, which ruled in this area, state that their ancestral kingdom was located within the 18 forest kingdoms.
Frontier kings and tribes
![Samudra Gandhara coin, Punjabi mint Circa CE 350-375](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Samudra_Gandhara_coin%2C_Punjabi_mint_Circa_CE_350-375.jpg)
The
Allahabad Pillar inscription mentions that rulers of several frontier kingdoms and tribal
oligarchies paid Samudragupta tributes, obeyed his orders, and performed obeisance before him. The inscription explicitly describes the five kingdoms as frontier territories: the areas controlled by the tribes were also probably located at the frontier of Samudrgupta's kingdom.
Historian
Upinder Singh
Upinder Singh is an Indian historian who is Professor of History and Dean of Faculty at Ashoka University. She is the former head of the History Department at the University of Delhi. She is also the recipient of the inaugural Infosys Prize in ...
theorizes that the relationship of these frontier rulers to the Gupta emperor had "certain elements of a feudatory relationship". According to historian R. C. Majumdar, it is likely that Samudragupta's conquests in Aryavarta and Dakshinapatha increased his reputation to such an extent that the frontier rulers and tribes submitted him without a fight.
The frontier kingdoms included:
![Davaka in the Allahabad Pillar inscription](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Davaka_in_the_Allahabad_Pillar_inscription.jpg)
#
Samatata
Samataṭa (Brahmi script: ''sa-ma-ta-ṭa'') was an ancient geopolitical division of Bengal in the eastern Indian subcontinent. The Greco-Roman account of ''Sounagoura'' is linked to the kingdom of Samatata. Its territory corresponded to much ...
, located in the present-day Bengal.
#
Davaka
Davaka was a kingdom of ancient Indian subcontinent, located in current central region of Assam state. The references to it comes from the 4th century Allahabad pillar inscription of Samudragupta, where it is mentioned as one of five frontier k ...
, located in present-day Assam.
#
Kamarupa, located in present-day Assam.
#
Nepala
Nepal (; ne, नेपाल ), formerly the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal ( ne,
सङ्घीय लोकतान्त्रिक गणतन्त्र नेपाल ), is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is mai ...
, located in present-day Nepal. According to one theory, Nepala here refers to the
Licchavi kingdom
Licchavi (also ''Lichchhavi'', ''Lichavi'') was a kingdom which existed in the Kathmandu Valley in modern-day Nepal from approximately 400 to 750 CE. The Licchavi clan originated from Vaishali, and conquered Kathmandu Valley. The Lichchhavis ...
, whose rulers may have been the maternal relatives of Samudragupta.
# Karttripura, probably located in the present-day
Uttarakhand
Uttarakhand ( , or ; , ), also known as Uttaranchal ( ; the official name until 2007), is a state in the northern part of India. It is often referred to as the "Devbhumi" (literally 'Land of the Gods') due to its religious significance and ...
: the inscription appears to name frontier kingdoms in geographical order proceeding from Bengal to Assam to Nepal; Uttarakhand would be next in the sequence. A now-obsolete theory identified Karttripura with
Kartarpur in present-day Punjab, but Kartarpur was established much later, in the 16th century, by
Guru Arjan
Guru Arjan (Gurmukhi: ਗੁਰੂ ਅਰਜਨ, pronunciation: ; 15 April 1563 – 30 May 1606) was the first of the two Gurus martyred in the Sikh faith and the fifth of the ten total Sikh Gurus. He compiled the first official edition of ...
.
The tribal oligarchies included:
#
Malavas
The Malavas (Brahmi script: 𑀫𑁆𑀫𑀸𑀭𑀯 ''Mmālava'') or Malwas were an ancient Indian tribe. Modern scholars identify them with the Mallian people (Malloi) who were settled in the Punjab region at the time of Alexander's invasion ...
: During Samudragupta's period, they were probably headquartered at Karkota-nagara (present-day Nagar Fort in Rajasthan), where several thousands of their coins have been discovered.
#
Arjunayanas
Arjunayana, Arjunavana, Arjunavayana or Arjunayanaka was an ancient republican people located in Punjab or north-eastern Rajasthan. They emerged as a political power during the Shunga period (). In the Allahabad Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta ...
: Their coins have been found in the
Mathura region. According to numismatist
John Allan, the Arjunayanas resided in the triangle connecting the present-day Delhi, Jaipur and Agra.
#
Yaudheyas
Yaudheya (Brahmi script: 𑀬𑁅𑀥𑁂𑀬) or Yoddheya Gana (Yoddheya Republic) was an ancient militant confederation. The word Yaudheya is a derivative of the word from yodha meaning warriors.“Yaudheyas.” Ancient Communities of the Hima ...
: They ruled the area between the Sutlej and the Yamuna rivers after the Kushans. They seem to have become Samudragupta's tributaries.
#
Madrakas: They are generally placed between the Ravi and the Chenab rivers.
#
Abhiras
The Abhira tribe is mentioned in the ancient Indian epic Mahabharata. A historical people of the same name are mentioned in the ''Periplus of the Erythraean Sea''. They are thought to be people who moved in from eastern Iran in the aftermath of ...
: Epigraphic and literary evidence suggests that they ruled in western India during Samudragupta's period.
# Sanakanikas: They appear to have ruled the region around
Udayagiri in present-day Madhya Pradesh. An inscription found at Udayagiri refers to a Sanakanika chief as a feudatory of Chandragupta II: this chief and his two predecessors are described as "Maharajas", which suggests that Samudragupta allowed the Sanakanika chiefs to rule as his governors after conquering their territory.
# Kakas: They may have been the rulers of the area around the
Sanchi
Sanchi is a Buddhist complex, famous for its Great Stupa, on a hilltop at Sanchi Town in Raisen District of the State of Madhya Pradesh, India. It is located, about 23 kilometres from Raisen town, district headquarter and north-east of Bh ...
hill, which has been mentioned as Kakanada in ancient inscriptions.
# Prarjunas They may be identified as the Prarjunakas mentioned in the ''
Arthashastra'', but their location is uncertain. Various theories place them in central India, including around the present-day
Narsinghpur
Narsinghpur is a city in Madhya Pradesh in central India. It comes under Jabalpur division.
Narsinghpur has a large temple dedicated to Lord Narsingh
As of 2001, Narsinghpur is the most literate district of the state.
History
Prehistory ...
or
Narsinghgarh in Madhya Pradesh.
# Kharaparikas: They may be same as the "Kharaparas" (literally "thief" or "rogue") mentioned in a 14th-century stone inscription found at Batiyagarh (or Battisgarh) in
Damoh district
Damoh District is a district of Madhya Pradesh state in central India. The town of Damoh is the district headquarters. The district is part of the Sagar Division.
Demographics
According to the 2011 census, Damoh District has a population of 1, ...
. These Kharaparas are variously identified as an indigenous tribe or freebooters of this region.
#* Some later sources suggest that the Kharaparas were a foreign tribe (possibly
Mongols
The Mongols ( mn, Монголчууд, , , ; ; russian: Монголы) are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia, Inner Mongolia in China and the Buryatia Republic of the Russian Federation. The Mongols are the principal membe ...
), and the
Dingal
Dingal (Devnagari: डिंगल; IAST: ''ḍiṁgala''; also spelled Dimgal), also known as Old Western Rajasthani, is an ancient Indian language written in Nagri script and having literature in prose as well as poetry. It is a language of v ...
-language texts use the word "Kharapara" as a synonym for "Muslim", but such an identification is not applicable to Samudragupta's period.
#* There is also some speculation about the Kharaparikas being same as the Gardabhilas mentioned in the ''
Puranas'', as the words "Khara" and "Gardabha" both mean "donkey" in Sanskrit. However, very little is known about the Gardabhilas from historical sources.
Relations with other rulers
Samudragupta's inscription mentions that several kings tried to please him by attending on him personally; offering him their daughters in marriage (or, according to another interpretation, gifting him maidens); and seeking the use of the
Garuda
Garuda (Sanskrit: ; Pāli: ; Vedic Sanskrit: गरुळ Garuḷa) is a Hindu demigod and divine creature mentioned in the Hindu, Buddhist and Jain faiths. He is primarily depicted as the mount (''vahana'') of the Hindu god Vishnu. Garuda ...
-depicting Gupta seal for administering their own territories. These kings included "Daivaputra-Shahi-Shahanushahi, Shaka-Murundas, and the rulers of the island countries such as Simhala".
; Daivaputra-Shahi-Shahanushahi
![Daivaputra Shaahi Shaahaanu Shaahi](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Daivaputra_Shaahi_Shaahaanu_Shaahi.jpg)
: Numismatist
John Allan theorized that Daivaputra, Shahi, and Shahanushahi were three different states; or alternatively, Shahi-Shahanushahi was a single state. Historian
D. R. Bhandarkar
Devadatta Ramakrishna Bhandarkar ( mr, देवदत्त रामकृष्ण भांडारकर; 19 November 1875 – 13 May 1950) was an Indian archaeologist and epigraphist who worked with the Archaeological Survey of India (AS ...
argued that Daivaputra ("a descendant of Devaputra") cannot be a stand-alone name, and identified Daivaputra-Shahi-Shahanushahi as a single ruler, possibly
Kidara I
Kidara I (Late Brahmi script: ''Ki-da-ra'') fl. 350-390 CE) was the first major ruler of the Kidarite Kingdom, which replaced the Indo-Sasanians in northwestern India, in the areas of Kushanshahr, Gandhara, Kashmir and Punjab.
Reign
Kidara hi ...
, who had established a new kingdom
Gandhara (present-day Afghanistan).
: According to historian Tej Ram Sharma, Daivaputra refers to a
Kushan king (Devaputra being a Kushan title); Shahi refers to a sub-branch of the Kushans; and Shahanushahi refers to the
Sasanians
The Sasanian () or Sassanid Empire, officially known as the Empire of Iranians (, ) and also referred to by historians as the Neo-Persian Empire, was the last Iranian empire before the early Muslim conquests of the 7th-8th centuries AD. Named ...
. These kings controlled parts of present-day Punjab and Afghanistan.
: Historian Ashvini Agrwal theorizes that Kidara, who initially ruled as a vassal of the Sasanian king
Shapur II
Shapur II ( pal, 𐭱𐭧𐭯𐭥𐭧𐭥𐭩 ; New Persian: , ''Šāpur'', 309 – 379), also known as Shapur the Great, was the tenth Sasanian King of Kings (Shahanshah) of Iran. The longest-reigning monarch in Iranian history, he reigne ...
, may have formed an alliance with Samudragupta to overthrow his Sasanian overlord. In ''
Raghuvamsha'', the Gupta court poet
Kalidasa states his hero Raghu defeated the Parasikas (Persians): Agrwal speculates that this description may be inspired from the Kidraite-Gupta victory over the Sasanians.
:According to
Abraham Eraly
Abraham Eraly (15 August 1934 — 8 April 2015) was an Indian writer of history, a teacher, and the founder of Chennai-based magazine ''Aside''.
Early life
Abraham Eraly was born in the village of Ayyampalli in Ernakulam district, Kerala on 15 ...
and others, the expression ''Devaputra Shāhi Shāhānu Shāhi'' evidently designates the Kushan princes, being a deformation of the Kushan regnal titles ''Devaputra, Shao and Shaonanoshao'': "Son of God, King, King of Kings".
[This expression obviously refers to the last rulers of the Kushan Empire, in ] This suggests that by the time of the Allahabad inscription the Kushans still ruled in
Punjab
Punjab (; Punjabi: پنجاب ; ਪੰਜਾਬ ; ; also romanised as ''Panjāb'' or ''Panj-Āb'') is a geopolitical, cultural, and historical region in South Asia, specifically in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, comprising a ...
, but under the suzerainty of the Gupta Emperor.
; Shaka-Murundas
![Allahabad pillar Samudragupta inscription Shaka word in Line 23](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/Allahabad_pillar_Samudragupta_inscription_Shaka_word_in_Line_23.jpg)
: Some scholars believe that the term "Shaka-Murundas" refers to a single entity. For example, scholars such as
Sten Konow assert that "Murunda" is a
Shaka
Shaka kaSenzangakhona ( – 22 September 1828), also known as Shaka Zulu () and Sigidi kaSenzangakhona, was the king of the Zulu Kingdom from 1816 to 1828. One of the most influential monarchs of the Zulu, he ordered wide-reaching reforms that ...
title meaning "lord"; the Kushans also used similar titles (for example, Kanishka is titled a "muroda" in his Zeda inscription).
: Other scholars, such as
K. P. Jayaswal
Kashi Prasad Jayaswal (27 November 1881 – 4 August 1937) was an Indian historian and lawyer. Jayaswal's works ''Hindu Polity'' (1918) and ''History of India, 150 A.D. to 350 A.D.'' (1933) are classics of ancient Indian historical literature. A ...
, believe that Shakas and Murundas are two different groups of people. According to this theory, Shakas here most probably refers to the
Western Kshatrapa
The Western Satraps, or Western Kshatrapas ( Brahmi:, ''Mahakṣatrapa'', "Great Satraps") were Indo-Scythian ( Saka) rulers of the western and central part of India ( Saurashtra and Malwa: modern Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Madhya Pr ...
rulers of
Ujjain
Ujjain (, Hindustani pronunciation: d͡ːʒɛːn is a city in Ujjain district of the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. It is the fifth-largest city in Madhya Pradesh by population and is the administrative centre of Ujjain district and Ujjain ...
. Jayaswal notes that the ''
Puranas'' mention the rule of 13 Murunda kings, and
Hemachandra
Hemachandra was a 12th century () Indian Jain saint, scholar, poet, mathematician, philosopher, yogi, grammarian, law theorist, historian, lexicographer, rhetorician, logician, and prosodist. Noted as a prodigy by his contemporaries, he gain ...
's ''Abhidhana-Chintamani'' describes Murunda as people of
Lampaka
Laghman (Dari: ) is one of the 34 provinces of Afghanistan, located in the eastern part of the country. It has a population of about 502,148, which is multi-ethnic and mostly a rural society. Laghman hosts a large number of historical landmarks, m ...
(in present-day Afghanistan). However, Agrwal points out that these sources are of relatively late origin, and it is possible that a branch of the Shakas had come to be known as "Murundas".
: The exact location of the Shakas mentioned in Samudragupta's inscription is not certain.
V. A. Smith identified them with the
Western Kshatrapas
The Western Satraps, or Western Kshatrapas (Brahmi:, ''Mahakṣatrapa'', "Great Satraps") were Indo-Scythian (Saka) rulers of the western and central part of India ( Saurashtra and Malwa: modern Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh ...
, who controlled the western
Malwa
Malwa is a historical region of west-central India occupying a plateau of volcanic origin. Geologically, the Malwa Plateau generally refers to the volcanic upland north of the Vindhya Range. Politically and administratively, it is also syn ...
and
Saurashtra regions.
D. R. Bhandarkar
Devadatta Ramakrishna Bhandarkar ( mr, देवदत्त रामकृष्ण भांडारकर; 19 November 1875 – 13 May 1950) was an Indian archaeologist and epigraphist who worked with the Archaeological Survey of India (AS ...
alternatively identified the Shaka-Murunda ruler with
Shridhara-varman, a Shaka ruler whose inscriptions have been discovered at
Sanchi
Sanchi is a Buddhist complex, famous for its Great Stupa, on a hilltop at Sanchi Town in Raisen District of the State of Madhya Pradesh, India. It is located, about 23 kilometres from Raisen town, district headquarter and north-east of Bh ...
(
Kanakerha inscription
The Kanakerha inscription, also spelled Kanakherha inscription, is an inscription found on the side of the hill of Sanchi, dating to the 3rd or 4th century CE.
The region of Sanchi-Vidisha was captured from the Satavahanas by the Western Satraps ...
) and
Eran
Eran is an ancient town and archaeological site in the Sagar district of Madhya Pradesh, India. It was one of the ancient mints for Indian dynasties as evidenced by the diverse coins excavated here. The site has 5th and 6th-century Gupta era ...
.
Eran then came under the direct control of Samudragupta, as attested by his Eran inscription.
; Simhala and other islands
: According to the Chinese sources,
Meghavarna, the king of Simhala (present-day
Sri Lanka), sought to build a monastery at Bodh Gaya, for the convenience of the pilgrims from his kingdom. He sent rich presents for this purpose, and Samudragupta sanctioned his request to build the monastery. Using poetic exaggeration, Samudragupta's courtier Harishena appears to have described this act of diplomacy as an act of subservience. Similarly, the 7th-century Chinese traveler
Xuanzang
Xuanzang (, ; 602–664), born Chen Hui / Chen Yi (), also known as Hiuen Tsang, was a 7th-century Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveler, and translator. He is known for the epoch-making contributions to Chinese Buddhism, the travelogue of ...
, who visited this monastery, appears to have regarded the rich presents sent by Meghavarna as tribute: he states that Meghavarna "gave in tribute to the king of India all the jewels of his country".
: The "other islands" may be the
Indianized kingdom
Greater India, or the Indian cultural sphere, is an area composed of many countries and regions in South and Southeast Asia that were historically influenced by Indian culture, which itself formed from the various distinct indigenous cultures ...
s of South-East Asia, but there is no evidence that their rulers were subordinate to Samudragupta. They probably sent embassies to the Gupta empire, and maintained friendly relations. The sea ports of the Gupta Empire, such as Tamralipti, were probably connected to these kingdoms through the marine routes. The widespread use of Sanskrit in these kingdoms may have happened as a result of Gupta influence.
Imperial extent
Samudragupta's empire included a core territory, located in northern India, which was directly controlled by the emperor. Besides, it comprised a number of monarchical and tribal tributary states. Historian
R. C. Majumdar theorizes that Samudragupta directly controlled an area extending from the
Ravi River
The Ravi River () is a transboundary river crossing northwestern India and eastern Pakistan. It is one of five rivers associated with the Punjab region.
Under the Indus Waters Treaty of 1960, the waters of the Ravi and two other rivers were ...
(
Punjab
Punjab (; Punjabi: پنجاب ; ਪੰਜਾਬ ; ; also romanised as ''Panjāb'' or ''Panj-Āb'') is a geopolitical, cultural, and historical region in South Asia, specifically in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, comprising a ...
) in the west to the
Brahmaputra River (
Bengal
Bengal ( ; bn, বাংলা/বঙ্গ, translit=Bānglā/Bôngô, ) is a geopolitical, cultural and historical region in South Asia, specifically in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal, predom ...
and
Assam
Assam (; ) is a state in northeastern India, south of the eastern Himalayas along the Brahmaputra and Barak River valleys. Assam covers an area of . The state is bordered by Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh to the north; Nagaland and Manipur ...
) in the east, and from the
Himalayan foothills in the north to the
Vindhya hills
The Vindhya Range (also known as Vindhyachal) () is a complex, discontinuous chain of mountain ridges, hill ranges, highlands and plateau escarpments in west-central India.
Technically, the Vindhyas do not form a single mountain range in the ...
in the south. The south-western boundary of his territory roughly followed an imaginary line drawn from present-day
Karnal
Karnal ( is a city located in the state of Haryana, India and is the administrative headquarters of Karnal District. It was used by East India Company army as a refuge during the Indian Rebellion of 1857 in Delhi. The Battle of Karnal between ...
to
Bhilsa
Vidisha (विदिशा, formerly known as Bhelsa and known as Besnagar in ancient times) is a city in central Madhya Pradesh, India. It is located 62.5 km northeast of the state capital, Bhopal. The name "Vidisha" is derived from th ...
.
In the south, Samudragupta's empire definitely included
Eran
Eran is an ancient town and archaeological site in the Sagar district of Madhya Pradesh, India. It was one of the ancient mints for Indian dynasties as evidenced by the diverse coins excavated here. The site has 5th and 6th-century Gupta era ...
in present-day Madhya Pradesh, where his inscription has been found. The Allahabad Pillar inscription suggests that he advanced up to
Kanchipuram in the south. However, since the claims in the Allahabad Pillar inscription are from a royal eulogy, they must be treated with caution. The southern kings were not under his direct suzerainty: they only paid him tribute.
According to historian Kunal Chakrabarti, Samudragupta's military campaigns weakened the tribal republics of present-day Punjab and Rajasthan, but even these kingdoms were not under his direct suzerainty: they only paid him tribute. Samudragupta's claim of control over other kings is questionable. Historian Ashvini Agrawal notes that a gold coin of the Gadahara tribe bears the legend Samudra, which suggests that Samudragupta's control extended up to the
Chenab river
The Chenab River () is a major river that flows in India and Pakistan, and is one of the 5 major rivers of the Punjab region. It is formed by the union of two headwaters, Chandra and Bhaga, which rise in the upper Himalayas in the Lahaul regi ...
in the Punjab region.
Some earlier scholars, such as
J. F. Fleet believed that Samudragupta had also conquered a part of
Maharashtra, based on the identification of Devarashtra with Maharashtra, and Erandapalla with
Erandol
Erandol is a town and a taluka in Jalgaon district in the Indian state of Maharashtra state. It is situated on the banks of the Anjani River.
Folklore
Erandol was known as "Ek Chakra Nagari" in the time of the Pandavas. Later, the town's nam ...
, where some Gupta-era remains have been found. However, this theory is no longer considered correct.
Coinage
The coinage of the Gupta Empire was initially derived from the coinage of the
Kushan Empire, adopting its weight standard, techniques and designs, following the conquests of Samudragupta in the northwest of the subcontinent.
The Guptas even adopted from the Kushans the name of ''
Dinara'' for their coinage, which ultimately came from the Roman name ''
Denarius
The denarius (, dēnāriī ) was the standard Roman silver coin from its introduction in the Second Punic War to the reign of Gordian III (AD 238–244), when it was gradually replaced by the antoninianus. It continued to be minted in very ...
aureus
The ''aureus'' ( ''aurei'', 'golden', used as a noun) was a gold coin of ancient Rome originally valued at 25 pure silver ''denarii'' (sin. denarius). The ''aureus'' was regularly issued from the 1st century BC to the beginning of the 4th cen ...
''. The standard coin type of Samudragupta is highly similar to the coinage of the later Kushan rulers, including the sacrificial scene over an altar, the depiction of a halo, while differences include the headdress of the ruler (a close-fitting cap instead of the Kushan pointed hat), the Garuda standard instead of the trident, and Samudragupta's jewelry, which is Indian.
The following types of Samudragupta's coins, inscribed with
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
language legends, have been discovered:
; Standard type
* Obverse legend: ''Samara-shata-vitata-vijayo-jita-ripurajito-divam-jayati''. Translation: "The unconquered one who has conquered his enemies
ndhas continuously attained victories in a hundred battles, wins heaven"; Alternative translation: "The conqueror of the unconquered fortresses of his enemies, whose victory was spread in hundreds of battles, conquers heaven".
* Reverse legend: ''Prakramah''
; Archer type
* Depicts Samudragupta standing fully dressed with a bow on his left hand and an arrow on his right hand.
* Obverse legend: ''Apratiratha vijitya kshitim sucharitair (or avnipatir) divam Jayati''. Translation: "Unopposed by hostile chariots, conquering the earth, he conquers heaven by his good deeds".
* Reverse legend: ''Apratirathah''
; Battle-axe type
* Obverse legend: ''Kritanta-parshur-jayatyajitarajajetaji-tah''. Translation: "Wielding the axe of Kritanta (the god of death), the unconquered conqueror of unconquered kings is victorious"
* Reverse legend: ''Kritanta-parashuh''
; Tiger-slayer type
* Depicts the king wearing turban and waist-cloth, and trampling a tiger
* Legend: ''Vaghra-prakramah''. Translation: "Having the prowess of a tiger".
; Lyrist type
* Depicts Samudragupta wearing waist-cloth and seated cross-legged on a couch, playing a
veena
The ''veena'', also spelled ''vina'' ( sa, वीणा IAST: vīṇā), comprises various chordophone instruments from the Indian subcontinent. Ancient musical instruments evolved into many variations, such as lutes, zithers and arched harps ...
that lies on his knees.
* Legend: the king's name
; Ashvamedha type
* Obverse legend: ''Rajadhirajah prithvim avitva divam jayatyahritavaji-medhah'' ("the overlord of kings, who has performed the horse-sacrifice, having protected the earth, conquers the heaven") on the reverse.
** Some coins have an alternative legend: ''Rajadhirajah prithvim avitva divam jayatya-prativarya-viryah'' ("the overlord of kings, of irresistible valour, having protected the earth, wins heaven").
* Reverse legend: ''Ashvamedha-prakramah'' ("possessing the valour to perform the horse-sacrifice")
Various scholars, including numismatist
John Allan, consider that the gold coins bearing the portraits of Chandragupta and Kumaradevi were issued by Samudragupta to commemorate his parents,
while others have attributed the issue of these coins to Chandragupta himself.
Samudragupta circa 335-380 CE.jpg , A gold coin
A gold coin is a coin that is made mostly or entirely of gold. Most gold coins minted since 1800 are 90–92% gold (22karat), while most of today's gold bullion coins are pure gold, such as the Britannia, Canadian Maple Leaf, and American Buf ...
of Samudragupta
Chandragupta I or Samudragupta. Circa 320-335 or 335-380 AD.jpg, Commemorative type of Chandragupta I
Chandragupta I (Gupta script: ''Cha-ndra-gu-pta'', r. c. 319–335 or 319–350 CE) was a king of the Gupta Empire, who ruled in northern and central India. His title ''Maharajadhiraja'' ("great king of kings") suggests that he was the firs ...
: this coin is in the name of Chandragupta I, but since no other coin types of Chandragupta are known, this is thought to be a commemorative issue minted by his son Samudragupta.
Samudragupta circa 335-380 CE Ashvameda type.jpg , Ashvamedha type coin
Samudragupta Circa 335-380 CE Lyrist type.jpg , Lyrist type coin
Inscriptions
![Ashoka Pillar, Allahabad, 1870](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/Ashoka_Pillar%2C_Allahabad%2C_1870.jpg)
Two inscriptions from Samudragupta's reign have been discovered:
*
Allahabad Pillar inscription
* Eran stone inscription
Fleet theorized that the Allahabad Pillar inscription was posthumous, and was issued during the reign of Chandragupta II, but modern scholars disagree with this theory.
Two other records are attributed to Samudragupta's reign, but the genuineness of these records is disputed:
* Nalanda inscription, dated to the regnal year 5
* Gaya inscription, dated to the regnal year 9
Both these inscriptions state that they were written at the order of the Gupta officer Gopaswamin. Like the Mathura stone inscription of Chandragupta II, these records describe Samudragupta as the "restorer of the Ashvamedha sacrifice". It seems suspicious that records issued so early in Samudragupta's reign mention this claim, which does not appear in the later Allahabad Pillar inscription. One possibility is that these records were issued during Samudragupta's reign, and were damaged after some time, because of which they were restored during the reign of Chandragupta II.
Eran inscription
![Eran inscription of Samudragupta](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Eran_inscription_of_Samudragupta.jpg)
At
Eran
Eran is an ancient town and archaeological site in the Sagar district of Madhya Pradesh, India. It was one of the ancient mints for Indian dynasties as evidenced by the diverse coins excavated here. The site has 5th and 6th-century Gupta era ...
, an inscription by Samudragupta seems to succeed that of a local
Saka
The Saka ( Old Persian: ; Kharoṣṭhī: ; Ancient Egyptian: , ; , old , mod. , ), Shaka (Sanskrit ( Brāhmī): , , ; Sanskrit (Devanāgarī): , ), or Sacae (Ancient Greek: ; Latin: ) were a group of nomadic Iranian peoples who hist ...
ruler named
Sridharavarman
Sridharavarman ( Gupta script: , ''Shri-dha-ra-va-rmma-na'', ruled CE)Buddhist Landscapes in Central India: Sanchi Hill and Archaeologies of Religious and Social Change, c. Third Century BC to Fifth Century AD, Julia Shaw, Routledge, 201p58-59/ref ...
, already known from the
Kanakerha inscription
The Kanakerha inscription, also spelled Kanakherha inscription, is an inscription found on the side of the hill of Sanchi, dating to the 3rd or 4th century CE.
The region of Sanchi-Vidisha was captured from the Satavahanas by the Western Satraps ...
at
Sanchi
Sanchi is a Buddhist complex, famous for its Great Stupa, on a hilltop at Sanchi Town in Raisen District of the State of Madhya Pradesh, India. It is located, about 23 kilometres from Raisen town, district headquarter and north-east of Bh ...
and another inscription in Eran. Samudragupta may therefore have ousted Sridharavarman in his campaigns to the West.
["During the course of this expedition, he is believed to have attacked and defeated the Saka Chief Shridhar Varman, ruling over Eran-Vidisha region. He then annexed the area and erected a monument at Eran (modern Sagar District) "for the sake cf augmenting his fame"." in ] The
Eran
Eran is an ancient town and archaeological site in the Sagar district of Madhya Pradesh, India. It was one of the ancient mints for Indian dynasties as evidenced by the diverse coins excavated here. The site has 5th and 6th-century Gupta era ...
Inscription of Samudragupta is presently stored in
Kolkata
Kolkata (, or , ; also known as Calcutta , the official name until 2001) is the capital of the Indian state of West Bengal, on the eastern bank of the Hooghly River west of the border with Bangladesh. It is the primary business, comme ...
Indian Museum
The Indian Museum in Central Kolkata, West Bengal, India, also referred to as the Imperial Museum at Calcutta in colonial-era texts, is the ninth oldest museum in the world, the oldest and largest museum in India as well as in Asia. It has rare ...
. The inscription, in red sandstone, was found not far to the west of the ruined temple of the boar. It reads:
Religion
Samudragputa's
Eran
Eran is an ancient town and archaeological site in the Sagar district of Madhya Pradesh, India. It was one of the ancient mints for Indian dynasties as evidenced by the diverse coins excavated here. The site has 5th and 6th-century Gupta era ...
inscription records the installation of a
Vishnu
Vishnu ( ; , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism.
Vishnu is known as "The Preserver" withi ...
idol in a temple. The Nalanda and Gaya inscriptions attributed to Samudragupta explicitly call him a devotee of Vishnu (''parama-Bhagavata'') He was also tolerant towards
Buddhism
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religions, Indian religion or Indian philosophy#Buddhist philosophy, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha. ...
, and permitted the construction of a Buddhist monastery commissioned by the
Anuradhapura
Anuradhapura ( si, අනුරාධපුරය, translit=Anurādhapuraya; ta, அனுராதபுரம், translit=Aṉurātapuram) is a major city located in north central plain of Sri Lanka. It is the capital city of North Central ...
king
Meghavarna at
Bodh Gaya in his territory.
The Allahabad Pillar inscription states that Samudragupta was engaged in the performance of the
Brahmanical
The historical Vedic religion (also known as Vedicism, Vedism or ancient Hinduism and subsequently Brahmanism (also spelled as Brahminism)), constituted the religious ideas and practices among some Indo-Aryan peoples of northwest Indian Subco ...
ceremonies of Sattra (
Soma
Soma may refer to:
Businesses and brands
* SOMA (architects), a New York–based firm of architects
* Soma (company), a company that designs eco-friendly water filtration systems
* SOMA Fabrications, a builder of bicycle frames and other bicycle ...
sacrifices) and Diksha. It describes him as "the giver of many hundreds of
thousands of cows". The Mathura stone inscription of his son
Chandragupta II also describes him as the giver of "millions of cows and gold". It appears that Samudragupta donated these cows to the Brahmins who officiated his Sattra and Diksha ceremonies. The Eran inscription states that Samudragupta surpassed
Prithu
Prithu (Sanskrit: पृथु, ''Pṛthu'', lit. "large, great, important, abundant") is a sovereign ( chakravarti), featured in the Puranas. According to Hinduism, he is an avatar (incarnation) of the preserver god—Vishnu. He is also calle ...
,
Raghava and other legendary kings in giving gold.
The Allahabad Pillar inscription alludes to his
divine kingship
In many historical societies, the position of kingship carries a sacral meaning; that is, it is identical with that of a high priest and judge. The concept of theocracy is related, although a sacred king need not necessarily rule through hi ...
, comparing him to the ''Parama Purusha'' (supreme being), and also with deities such as Dhanada (
Kubera),
Varuna
Varuna (; sa, वरुण, , Malay: ''Baruna'') is a Vedic deity associated initially with the sky, later also with the seas as well as Ṛta (justice) and Satya (truth). He is found in the oldest layer of Vedic literature of Hinduism, such ...
,
Indra, and Antaka (
Yama
Yama (Devanagari: यम) or Yamarāja (यमराज), is a deity of death, dharma, the south direction, and the underworld who predominantly features in Hindu and Buddhist religion, belonging to an early stratum of Rigvedic Hindu deities. ...
). The Eran inscription states that he was equal to Kubera and Yama in pleasure and anger respectively. The Mathura stone inscription similarly describes him as equal to the deities Kubera, Varuna, Indra, and Yama.
Ashvamedha
Samudragupta performed the
Ashvamedha ritual, which was used by the ancient Indian kings to prove their imperial sovereignty, and issued gold coins (see
Coinage
Coinage may refer to:
* Coins, standardized as currency
* Neologism, coinage of a new word
* '' COINage'', numismatics magazine
* Tin coinage, a tax on refined tin
* Protologism
''Protologism'' is a term coined in 2003 by the American literary ...
section) to mark this performance. The copper-plate inscriptions of Samudragupta's granddaughter Prabhavati-Gupta, who was a
Vakataka
The Vakataka dynasty () was an ancient Indian dynasty that originated from the Deccan in the mid-3rd century CE. Their state is believed to have extended from the southern edges of Malwa and Gujarat in the north to the Tungabhadra River in th ...
queen, describe him as the performer of multiple horse sacrifices. According to one theory, Samudragupta indeed performed more than one horse sacrifices, as attested by the presence of two different legends on his Ashvamedha coins. Another theory dismisses the claim on Prabhavati-Gupta's inscriptions as an exaggeration or a scribal error since this claim does not appear on the inscriptions of Samudragupta or his successors.
The Mathura stone inscription of
Chandragupta II describes Samudragupta as "the restorer of the Ashvamedha sacrifice that had been long in abeyance" (
Smith
Smith may refer to:
People
* Metalsmith, or simply smith, a craftsman fashioning tools or works of art out of various metals
* Smith (given name)
* Smith (surname), a family name originating in England, Scotland and Ireland
** List of people wi ...
's translation). This claim also appears in the inscriptions of the subsequent Gupta kings, as well as the spurious Gaya and Nalanda inscriptions attributed to Samudragupta. However, several kings including those from
Bharashiva
The Naga ( IAST: Nāga) dynasty ruled parts of north-central India during the 3rd and the 4th centuries, after the decline of the Kushan Empire and before the rise of the Gupta Empire. Its capital was located at Padmavati, which is identified wi ...
, Vakataka,
Shalankayana
The Salankayana ( IAST: Śālaṇkāyana) dynasty of ancient India ruled a part of Andhra region in India from 300 to 440 CE. Their territory was located between the Godavari and the Krishna rivers. Their capital was located at Vengi, modern Pedav ...
, and
Pallava dynasties had had performed Ashvamedha in the preceding years. Different scholars have attempted to explain this anomaly in different ways:
H. C. Raychaudhuri suggests that the Gupta court poet did not know about these kings. According to
R. C. Majumdar, Samudragupta was the first king several centuries to perform the sacrifice in the
Magadha
Magadha was a region and one of the sixteen sa, script=Latn, Mahajanapadas, label=none, lit=Great Kingdoms of the Second Urbanization (600–200 BCE) in what is now south Bihar (before expansion) at the eastern Ganges Plain. Magadha was ruled ...
region. Majumdar also theorizes that the Ashvamedha ceremony performed by Bharashiva, Vakataka, and other near-contemporary kings was "more of a religious nature", while Samudragupta's ceremony actually involved proving his imperial sovereignty. Similarly, scholars such as
S. K. Aiyangar and
D. R. Bhandarkar
Devadatta Ramakrishna Bhandarkar ( mr, देवदत्त रामकृष्ण भांडारकर; 19 November 1875 – 13 May 1950) was an Indian archaeologist and epigraphist who worked with the Archaeological Survey of India (AS ...
, theorize that unlike the other kings, Samudragupta performed a "full-fledged" Ashvamedha ceremony. Others, such as
V. S. Pathak and Jagannath Agrawal, interpret the verse to mean that Samudragupta performed the horse-sacrifice that lasted for a long-time.
The surviving verses of Samudragupta's own Allahabad Pillar inscription do not mention the Ashvamedha ceremony. According to one theory, this inscription was put up to mark the beginning of the ceremony, as the panegyrics of the sacrificer were an essential part of the Ashvamedha ceremony. It is possible that its first four lines, which are now lost, contained a reference to the ceremony.
Personality
Samudragupta's coins depict him as a man of tall stature and muscular physique. The Allahabad Pillar inscription presents him as a compassionate ruler, stating that his "mind was engaged in providing relief to the low, the poor, the helpless, and the afflicted". It also mentions that he reinstated many royal families which had lost their kingdoms, including the kings defeated by him. At the same time, it states that he maintained strict administration ("Prachanda shasana").
The inscription states that Samudragupta became famous among the learned people because of his poetical works, and earned the epithet "king of poets". This suggests that he composed some poetical works, but none of these works now survive.
The inscription also boasts that Samudragupta put to shame the celestial musician
Tumburu
Tumburu ( sa, तुम्बुरु, translit=Tuṃburu) is the foremost among the gandharvas, the celestial musicians of Hindu mythology. He is described to perform in the courts of the deities Kubera and Indra, as well as sing the praises of ...
and
Narada
Narada ( sa, नारद, ), or Narada Muni, is a sage divinity, famous in Hindu traditions as a travelling musician and storyteller, who carries news and enlightening wisdom. He is one of mind-created children of Brahma, the creator god. He ...
by his lovely performances of music. Samudragupta's musical talents are also corroborated by his gold coins which depict him playing a
veena
The ''veena'', also spelled ''vina'' ( sa, वीणा IAST: vīṇā), comprises various chordophone instruments from the Indian subcontinent. Ancient musical instruments evolved into many variations, such as lutes, zithers and arched harps ...
.
The inscription praises Samudragupta's wisdom and intellect, stating that he put to shame the preceptor of the Lord of the Gods (that is,
Brihaspati
Brihaspati ( sa, बृहस्पति, ), also known as Guru, is a Hindu deity. In the ancient Vedic scriptures of Hinduism, Brihaspati is a deity associated with fire, and the word also refers to a rishi (sage) who counsels the devas (god ...
) by his sharp intellect.
Succession
The official records of the Gupta dynasty state that Samudragupta was succeeded by
Chandragupta II, who was his son from Dattadevi. Based on a reconstruction of the partially-lost Sanskrit play ''
Devichandraguptam Devi-Chandraguptam ( IAST: Devīcandraguptam) or Devi-Chandragupta is an Indian Sanskrit-language political drama attributed to Vishakhadeva, who is generally identified with Vishakhadatta. The complete text of the play is now lost, but its portion ...
'', a section of modern historians believe that Samudragupta was initially succeeded by
Ramagupta
Ramagupta (IAST: Rāma-gupta; r. c. late 4th century CE), according to the Sanskrit play '' Devichandraguptam'', was an emperor of the Gupta dynasty of northern India. The surviving fragments of the play, combined with other literary evidence, su ...
(presumably the eldest son), who was then dethroned by Chandragupta II.
References
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External links
Catalogue of Coins of Samudragupta
Gupta Empire
4th-century Indian monarchs