Sheikh
Sheikh (pronounced or ; ar, شيخ ' , mostly pronounced , plural ' )—also transliterated sheekh, sheyikh, shaykh, shayk, shekh, shaik and Shaikh, shak—is an honorific title in the Arabic language. It commonly designates a chief of a ...
Al-Hajj Salim Suwari was a 13th-century
West African
West Africa or Western Africa is the westernmost region of Africa. The United Nations defines Western Africa as the 16 countries of Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Mali, Ma ...
Soninke ''
karamogo
The Karamogo were the scholar class among the peaceful Dyula traders of Western Africa
West Africa or Western Africa is the westernmost region of Africa. The United Nations defines Western Africa as the 16 countries of Benin, Burkina Faso ...
'' (
Islamic
Islam (; ar, ۘالِإسلَام, , ) is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion centred primarily around the Quran, a religious text considered by Muslims to be the direct word of God (or '' Allah'') as it was revealed to Muhammad, the mai ...
scholar) who focused on the responsibilities of Muslims minorities residing in a non-Muslim society. He formulated an important theological rationale for
peaceful coexistence with the non-Muslim ruling classes called the Suwarian tradition, which survives to this day despite the pressures of modernism.
Background
The spread of Islam throughout West Africa was a concomitant of long-distance trade by
Mande Mande may refer to:
* Mandé peoples of western Africa
* Mande languages
* Manding, a term covering a subgroup of Mande peoples, and sometimes used for one of them, Mandinka
* Garo people of northeastern India and northern Bangladesh
* Mande River ...
-speaking Muslim traders and craftsmen known as ''Dyula''. Since Muslims in these regions lived in the ''dar al-kufr'' (House of Unbelievers), they needed legitimization for trading with unbelievers – an activity viewed with disdain by some North African Muslim jurists. Sheikh Al-Hajj Salim Suwari focused on providing a solution to this and other related issues. Hailing from the
Sahelian
The Sahel (; ar, ساحل ' , "coast, shore") is a region in North Africa. It is defined as the ecoclimatic and biogeographic realm of transition between the Sahara to the north and the Sudanian savanna to the south. Having a hot semi-arid cli ...
town of
Ja (Dia) in the core
Mali
Mali (; ), officially the Republic of Mali,, , ff, 𞤈𞤫𞤲𞥆𞤣𞤢𞥄𞤲𞤣𞤭 𞤃𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭, Renndaandi Maali, italics=no, ar, جمهورية مالي, Jumhūriyyāt Mālī is a landlocked country in West Africa. Mali ...
area, Al-Hajj Salim Suwari had performed the pilgrimage (''
hajj
The Hajj (; ar, حَجّ '; sometimes also spelled Hadj, Hadji or Haj in English) is an annual Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, the holiest city for Muslims. Hajj is a mandatory religious duty for Muslims that must be carried ...
'') to
Mecca
Mecca (; officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, commonly shortened to Makkah ()) is a city and administrative center of the Mecca Province of Saudi Arabia, and the Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red ...
several times and devoted his intellectual career to developing an understanding of the faith that would assist Muslim minorities in residing in "
pagan
Paganism (from classical Latin ''pāgānus'' "rural", "rustic", later "civilian") is a term first used in the fourth century by early Christians for people in the Roman Empire who practiced polytheism, or ethnic religions other than Judaism. ...
" lands (''
dar al-kufr
In classical Islamic law, the major divisions are ''dar al-Islam'' (lit. territory of Islam/voluntary submission to God), denoting regions where Islamic law prevails, ''dar al-sulh'' (lit. territory of treaty) denoting non-Islamic lands which have ...
'').
Suwarian tradition
Sheikh Suwari formulated the obligations of
Dyula minorities residing across West Africa into something dubbed the ''Suwarian tradition''. It stressed the need for Muslims to coexist peaceably with unbelievers, and so justified a separation of religion and politics. The Suwarian prescription for peaceful coexistence involved seven main precepts: (a) unbelievers are ignorant, not wicked: (b) it is Allah's design that some people remain ignorant longer than others: (c) Muslims must nurture their own learning and piety and thereby furnish good examples to non-Muslims around them, so they will know how to behave when they are converted: (d) they could accept the
jurisdiction
Jurisdiction (from Latin 'law' + 'declaration') is the legal term for the legal authority granted to a legal entity to enact justice. In federations like the United States, areas of jurisdiction apply to local, state, and federal levels.
Jur ...
of non-Muslim authorities, as long as they had the necessary protection and conditions to practice the faith in accordance with the ''
sunnah
In Islam, , also spelled ( ar, سنة), are the traditions and practices of the Islamic prophet Muhammad that constitute a model for Muslims to follow. The sunnah is what all the Muslims of Muhammad's time evidently saw and followed and passed ...
'' of the
Prophet Muhammed
Muhammad ( ar, مُحَمَّد; 570 – 8 June 632 CE) was an Arab religious, social, and political leader and the founder of Islam. According to Islamic doctrine, he was a prophet divinely inspired to preach and confirm the monothe ...
. In this teaching Suwari followed a strong predilection in
Islamic political philosophy for any government, albeit non-Muslim or tyrannical, as opposed to none: (e) The military ''
jihad
Jihad (; ar, جهاد, jihād ) is an Arabic word which literally means "striving" or "struggling", especially with a praiseworthy aim. In an Islamic context, it can refer to almost any effort to make personal and social life conform with Go ...
'' was a resort only in self-defense if the faithful were threatened. (f) Suwari discouraged ''
dawah
Dawah ( ar, دعوة, lit=invitation, ) is the act of inviting or calling people to embrace Islam. The plural is ''da‘wāt'' (دَعْوات) or ''da‘awāt'' (دَعَوات).
Etymology
The English term ''Dawah'' derives from the Arabic ...
'' (
proselytizing
Proselytism () is the policy of attempting to convert people's religious or political beliefs. Proselytism is illegal in some countries.
Some draw distinctions between ''evangelism'' or '' Da‘wah'' and proselytism regarding proselytism as invol ...
), instead contending that
Allah
Allah (; ar, الله, translit=Allāh, ) is the common Arabic word for God. In the English language, the word generally refers to God in Islam. The word is thought to be derived by contraction from '' al- ilāh'', which means "the god", an ...
would bring non-Muslims to Islam in His own way; it was not a Muslim's responsibility to decide when ignorance should give way to belief: (g) Muslims must ensure that, by their commitment to education and learning, they keep their observance of the Law free from error.
Influence of the Suwarian tradition
Suwarians articulate an ideological level, without straying from
orthodoxy
Orthodoxy (from Greek: ) is adherence to correct or accepted creeds, especially in religion.
Orthodoxy within Christianity refers to acceptance of the doctrines defined by various creeds and ecumenical councils in Antiquity, but different Churc ...
, the peculiarities of the situation in which Muslims found themselves in the period following the collapse of
imperial Mali. Described by author
Nehemia Levtzion
Nehemia Levtzion ( he, נחמיה לבציון; November 24, 1935 — August 15, 2003) was an Israeli scholar of African history, Near East, Islamic, and African studies, and the President of the Open University of Israel from 1987 to 1992 and the ...
as "accommodationist Islam", it created a praxis to enable Muslims to function within essentially non-Muslim societies, accommodating their interests to those of the wider society while at the same time combating erosion of their distinctive Muslim identity. Since their form of Islam was capable of accommodating traditional cults, the ''dyula'' often served as priests,
soothsayers and counselors at the courts of
animist
Animism (from Latin: ' meaning 'breath, Soul, spirit, life') is the belief that objects, places, and creatures all possess a distinct Spirituality, spiritual essence. Potentially, animism perceives all things—Animal, animals, Plant, plants, Ro ...
rulers.
The Suwarian tradition was a realistic rationale for Muslims living in the woodland and forest regions of West Africa over the past five or six centuries. It was not without tension that came in part from the missionary dimension of Islam itself; it was challenged by Muslim reformers in recent centuries. Its neat compartments were obscured by occasional intermarriage between merchants and rulers. But the Suwarian tradition was resilient and useful, and it is probably similar to the positions of many African Muslim communities who found themselves in situations of inferior numbers and force, took advantage of their networks for trade, and enjoyed good relations with their "pagan" hosts.
Spread of the Suwarian school
Al-Hajj Salim's scholarly activity was centered on the town of
Jagha in the ''
bilâd as-sûdân'' (Western Sudan), but his influence was greatest along the southern fringes of the Manding trade network, and corresponds to the period of the disintegration of the old
Malian empire
The Mali Empire (Manding: ''Mandé''Ki-Zerbo, Joseph: ''UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. IV, Abridged Edition: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century'', p. 57. University of California Press, 1997. or Manden; ar, مالي, Māl ...
. From the accounts of
and
Lamin Sanneh
Lamin Sanneh (May 24, 1942 – January 6, 2019) was the D. Willis James Professor of Missions and World Christianity at Yale Divinity School and Professor of History at Yale University.
Biography
Sanneh was born and raised in Gambia as part of ...
it is difficult to date the lifespan of Salim Suwari. Wilks dates his life around the late 15th century, while Sanneh thinks he lived two centuries earlier, around the late 13th century. Differences notwithstanding, Wilks intimates that his teachings were nurtured by his followers in
Niger
)
, official_languages =
, languages_type = National languages[Senegal
Senegal,; Wolof: ''Senegaal''; Pulaar: 𞤅𞤫𞤲𞤫𞤺𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭 (Senegaali); Arabic: السنغال ''As-Sinighal'') officially the Republic of Senegal,; Wolof: ''Réewum Senegaal''; Pulaar : 𞤈𞤫𞤲𞤣𞤢𞥄𞤲𞤣𞤭 ...](_blank)
and middle section of the Niger river from where they conveyed the tradition to the Voltaic region in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Wilks describes it as "pacifistic and quietist in content," implying a tolerant and respectful approach to non-Muslims, while in the words of Sanneh, one of the imperatives of the tradition is its "travel or mobility (''al-safar'') involving the penetration of distant lands for the purposes of religion."
Scholarly legacy
The Suwari school of thought was a scholarly discipline that enjoyed a substantial number of ''
ulema
In Islam, the ''ulama'' (; ar, علماء ', singular ', "scholar", literally "the learned ones", also spelled ''ulema''; feminine: ''alimah'' ingularand ''aalimath'' lural are the guardians, transmitters, and interpreters of religious ...
'' as well as a long history among West African Muslims. Ivor Wilks observes that "almost all of the ''
asanid'', scholarly chains owned by Muslim scholars of
Ghana
Ghana (; tw, Gaana, ee, Gana), officially the Republic of Ghana, is a country in West Africa. It abuts the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean to the south, sharing borders with Ivory Coast in the west, Burkina Faso in the north, and To ...
,
Côte d'Ivoire
Ivory Coast, also known as Côte d'Ivoire, officially the Republic of Côte d'Ivoire, is a country on the southern coast of West Africa. Its capital is Yamoussoukro, in the centre of the country, while its largest city and economic centre is ...
and
Burkina Faso
Burkina Faso (, ; , ff, 𞤄𞤵𞤪𞤳𞤭𞤲𞤢 𞤊𞤢𞤧𞤮, italic=no) is a landlocked country in West Africa with an area of , bordered by Mali to the northwest, Niger to the northeast, Benin to the southeast, Togo and Ghana to the ...
converge on the highly revered figure of
Kong Liman Abbas" whose own chain can be traced backwards "in twelve teaching generations to Al-Hajj Salim Suwari." Wilks traces a long chain of scholars and students that passed through the tradition of Suwari, ranging from Saghanugu Liman of
Bobo-Dioulasso
Bobo-Dioulasso is a city in Burkina Faso with a population of 904,920 (); it is the second-largest city in the country, after Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso's capital. The name means "home of the Bobo-Dioula".
The local Bobo-speaking population (re ...
(Burkina Faso), Ibrahim bin al-Mustapha of
Wa, Ghana
Wa is a town and the capital of Wa Municipal District and the Upper West Region of northern Ghana. Wa had a 2012 settlement population of 102,446. Features of the town include several churches and mosques, the Wa-Na Palace, the St. Andrew's Ca ...
, Al-Amin bin Muhammad al-Abyad Kulibali of
Kong, Côte d'Ivoire to Sa’id bin Abd al-Qadir, of Wa.
It may not be stretching the point to suggest that the same tradition of ''ulema'', especially the
Kamaghaté,
Wattara of the
Soninke Wangara
The Wangara (also known as Wakore, Wankori, Ouankri, Wangarawa, Dyula, Jula, Jakhanke, Jalonke) are a subgroup of the Soninke who later became assimilated (at varying degrees) merchant classes that specialized in both Trans Saharan and Secret ...
patronym
A patronymic, or patronym, is a component of a personal name based on the given name of one's father, grandfather (avonymic), or an earlier male ancestor.
Patronymics are still in use, including mandatory use, in many countries worldwide, alt ...
, were the influential Muslims and traders in
Kumasi
Kumasi (historically spelled Comassie or Coomassie, usually spelled Kumase in Twi) is a city in the Ashanti Region, and is among the largest metropolitan areas in Ghana. Kumasi is located in a rain forest region near Lake Bosomtwe, and is the ...
in the years before the late 1890s when the
Hausa
Hausa may refer to:
* Hausa people, an ethnic group of West Africa
* Hausa language, spoken in West Africa
* Hausa Kingdoms, a historical collection of Hausa city-states
* Hausa (horse) or Dongola horse, an African breed of riding horse
See also
* ...
Muslims migrated in large waves to Kumasi after the collapse of
Salaga
Salaga is a town and is the capital of East Gonja District, East Gonja district, a district in the Savannah Region, Ghana, Savannah Region of north Ghana. Salaga had a 2012 Human settlement, settlement population of 25,472 people.
Etymology
The ...
. It is probable that the Suwari tradition swept through greater parts of the
Ghanaian Muslim communities – Wenchi, Wa,
Gonja, Dagbon, and among some of the Kumasi Muslims, excluding the Hausas and other Muslims of
Nigerian
Nigerians or the Nigerian people are citizens of Nigeria or people with ancestry from Nigeria. The name Nigeria was taken from the Niger River running through the country. This name was allegedly coined in the late 19th century by British jour ...
origin. And His great grandson Shiek Alhaj Baba Suwari of Wenchi in Ghana also contributed to massive spread of Islam in the sub-region.
The
Jakhanke people
The Jakhanke -- also spelled Jahanka, Jahanke, Jahanque, Jahonque, Diakkanke, Diakhanga, Diakhango, Dyakanke, Diakhanké, Diakanké, or Diakhankesare -- are a Manding-speaking ethnic group in the Senegambia region, often classified as a subgroup ...
also trace their spiritual ancestry to al-Hajj Salim Suwari, and since they believed that the spirits of dead saints kept guard over their followers and interceded for them before Allah, the graves of al-Hajj Salim and other great teachers were centers for pilgrimage.
[Ira M. Lapidus]
A History of Islamic Societies
/ref>
Notes
References
*Launey, Robert. "''Beyond the Stream: Islam & Society in a West African Town''", University of California Press
The University of California Press, otherwise known as UC Press, is a publishing house associated with the University of California that engages in academic publishing. It was founded in 1893 to publish scholarly and scientific works by faculty ...
, Berkeley
Berkeley most often refers to:
*Berkeley, California, a city in the United States
**University of California, Berkeley, a public university in Berkeley, California
* George Berkeley (1685–1753), Anglo-Irish philosopher
Berkeley may also refer ...
, 1992.
*Launay, Robert. "''Electronic Media & Islam Among the Dyula of Northern Cote de'Ivoire''". Journal; Africa, Vol. 67, 1997.
*Samwini, Nathan
"''Muslim Resurgence in Ghana Since 1950''"
''Journal of Christian-Muslim Relations'', Vol. 7. LIT Verlag Berlin-Hamburg-Münster
* Wilks, Ivor, "''The Juula & the Expansion of Islam into the Forest''", in N. Levtzion and Randall L. Pouwels (eds.), "''History of Islam in Africa''", Athens: Ohio University Press
Ohio University Press (OUP), founded in 1947, is the oldest and largest scholarly press in the state of Ohio. It is a department of Ohio University that publishes under its own name and the imprint Swallow Press.
History
The press publishes ap ...
, 2000
*Nehemia Levtzion and J.O. Voll (eds.), "''Eighteenth Century Renewal & Reform in Islam''", Syracuse: Syracuse University Press
Syracuse University Press, founded in 1943, is a university press that is part of Syracuse University. It is a member of the Association of American University Presses.
History
SUP was formed in August 1943 when president William P. Tolley prom ...
, 1987
*Andrea Brigaglia
''Historical Context: Notes on the Arabic Literary Tradition of West Africa''
Northwestern University
Northwestern University is a private research university in Evanston, Illinois. Founded in 1851, Northwestern is the oldest chartered university in Illinois and is ranked among the most prestigious academic institutions in the world.
Charte ...
*Elizabeth A. Isichei
"''A History of African Societies to 1870''"
*Moshe Terdman, "''Project for the Research of Islamist Movements''": ''Islam in Africa Newsletter'', Vol. 2 No. 3 Herzliya, Israel
Herzliya ( ; he, הֶרְצְלִיָּה ; ar, هرتسليا, Hirtsiliyā) is an affluent city in the central coast of Israel, at the northern part of the Tel Aviv District, known for its robust start-up and entrepreneurial culture. In it h ...
. 2007
''Islam in Medieval Sudan''
islamawareness.net
"''The Spread of Islam in West Africa''"
''Spice Digest'', Spring 2009, Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies, Stanford University
Stanford University, officially Leland Stanford Junior University, is a private research university in Stanford, California. The campus occupies , among the largest in the United States, and enrolls over 17,000 students. Stanford is consider ...
*Trimingham, Spencer. "''History of Islam in West Africa''". New York: Oxford University Press
Oxford University Press (OUP) is the university press of the University of Oxford. It is the largest university press in the world, and its printing history dates back to the 1480s. Having been officially granted the legal right to print books ...
, 1962.
*Kevin Shullington, Encyclopedia of African History
*J.F. Ade Ajayi. "Africa in the Nineteenth Century Until the 1880s": Unesco
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) aimed at promoting world peace and security through international cooperation in education, arts, sciences and culture. It ...
. International Scientific Committee
*J.D. Fage, "''A History of Africa''" 4th ed., Taylor & Francis, Inc., 2001
*''The Wider Influence of the Sudanic Kingdoms'', britannica.com
*Y. Person, "''Samori, Une Revolution Dyula''". Dakar
Dakar ( ; ; wo, Ndakaaru) (from daqaar ''tamarind''), is the capital and largest city of Senegal. The city of Dakar proper has a population of 1,030,594, whereas the population of the Dakar metropolitan area is estimated at 3.94 million in 2 ...
: IFAN, 1970. Vol. 1, Ch. 2
*Hodgkin, Thomas. "''The Islamic Literary Tradition in Ghana''", in I. Lewis (ed.), "''Islam in Tropical Africa''"
{{Authority control
African philosophers
13th-century Muslim scholars of Islam
15th-century Soninke people