Sacca-kiriyā (

Pāli Pali () is a Middle Indo-Aryan liturgical language native to the Indian subcontinent. It is widely studied because it is the language of the Buddhist ''Pāli Canon'' or ''Tipiṭaka'' as well as the sacred language of ''Theravāda'' Buddhism ...

; sa, satya-kriya, italic=yes, but more often: ''satyādhiṣṭhāna'')'' or '' sa, satyavādya''; '' pi, saccavacana'' or '' sa, satyavacana''; ''satyopavācana'', ''satyarākya'', ''satyavākya'', ''satyavacas'' or ''satyasrāvaṇā''; or simply '' pi, sacca'' or '' sa, satya''. is a solemn declaration of truth, expressed in ritual speech. Most often found in Buddhism, it can be an utterance with regard to one's own virtue, or with regard to a certain fact, followed by a command or resolution. Such a statement is believed to effect a wonder-working power that can benefit oneself and others, depending on the truthfulness of the person making the statement. The ''sacca-kiriyā'' is a motif found in the scriptural stories from the

Pāli Canon The Pāli Canon is the standard collection of scriptures in the Theravada Buddhist tradition, as preserved in the Pāli language. It is the most complete extant early Buddhist canon. It derives mainly from the Tamrashatiya school. During th ...

and its commentaries, as well as in post-canonical works such as the Milindapañhā and the

Avadāna Avadāna (Sanskrit; Pali cognate: ''Apadāna'') is the name given to a type of Buddhist literature correlating past lives' virtuous deeds to subsequent lives' events. Richard Salomon described them as "stories, usually narrated by the Buddha, ...

s. In these stories it is found usually as a blessing, but sometimes as a curse. The motif can also be found in

Hindu Hindus (; ) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism.Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pages 35–37 Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for ...

and

Jain Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current time cycle being ...

texts. The ''sacca-kiriyā'' presumes a moral force of truth that is operating in the world, and is stronger than gods or humans. Although ''sacca-kiriyā'' often refer to characteristics of

the Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist tradition, he was born in Lu ...

, the Buddhist teaching, and the

monastic community A monastery is a building or complex of buildings comprising the domestic quarters and workplaces of monastics, monks or nuns, whether living in communities or alone (hermits). A monastery generally includes a place reserved for prayer which ...

, it can also refer to facts with regard to natural phenomena, such as the sun or the moon. Some scholars believe that the effectiveness of a ''sacca-kiriyā'' as portrayed in stories depends on virtue and good character, whereas other scholars understand the ''sacca-kiriyā'' to be merely about speaking according to facts. Scholars theorize that the ''sacca-kiriyā'' is an ancient belief that precedes Buddhism, but was used in Buddhism as a teaching device to explain

Buddhist ethics Buddhist ethics are traditionally based on what Buddhists view as the Enlightenment in Buddhism, enlightened perspective of the Buddha. The term for ethics or morality used in Buddhism is ''Śīla'' or ''sīla'' (Pāli). ''Śīla'' in Buddhism i ...

and other teachings. The principles underlying the ''sacca-kiriyā'' have also been connected with

Mahatma Gandhi Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (; ; 2 October 1869 – 30 January 1948), popularly known as Mahatma Gandhi, was an Indian lawyer, anti-colonial nationalist Quote: "... marks Gandhi as a hybrid cosmopolitan figure who transformed ... anti- ...

's ideal of

non-violent resistance Nonviolent resistance (NVR), or nonviolent action, sometimes called civil resistance, is the practice of achieving goals such as social change through symbolic protests, civil disobedience, economic or political noncooperation, satyagraha, const ...

, and many other aspects of Asian culture and religious life.

Definition

''Sacca-kiriyā'' is a compound noun that derives from the root verb ''saccikaroti'', meaning 'to bring before one's eyes, see face to face, realize, experience, attain'. A ''sacca-kiriya'' is a solemn asseveration with regard to the truth, expressed as a ritualized speech act. It is usually a truthful utterance with regard to having performed a certain virtue, followed by a command or resolution, called a 'truth-command' ('' pi, saccādhiṭṭhānaṃ'', '' sa, satyādiṣṭhāna''). The ''sacca-kiriyā'' will usually contain a phrase "By this truth may..." ( pi, Etena saccavajjena..., italic=yes) or "By this power may..." ( pi, tejasa..., italic=yes), followed by the command or wish. It is generally made with a specific end in mind, such as to control a spirit, a physical object, or cause something to be done. Other examples given in the traditional literature are restoring eyesight after blindness, causing other living beings to help, causing pregnancy, and causing a sea to retreat. Virtues referred to are to have never hurt a living being, having performed generosity, kindness, religious devotion and other virtues. The truthfulness in these virtues is considered the "ground" ('' pi, vatthu'') for the realization of the ''sacca-kiriyā'', but the ground need not be causally related to it. Sometimes, the ''sacca-kiriyā'' is finished with certain symbolic rituals, such as the pouring of water, bathing and putting on new garments, and so forth. The ''sacca-kiriyā'' is always a formal act. Indologist George Thompson uses the term "

performative utterance In the philosophy of language and speech acts theory, performative utterances are sentences which not only describe a given reality, but also change the social reality they are describing. In a 1955 lecture series, later published as ''How to Do ...

" as coined by philosopher

J. L. Austin John Langshaw Austin (26 March 1911 – 8 February 1960) was a British philosopher of language and leading proponent of ordinary language philosophy, perhaps best known for developing the theory of speech acts. Austin pointed out that we use l ...

, because the ''sacca-kiriyā'' manages to realize the statement "in the very uttering". The Indic ''sacca-kiriyā'' is in its essence very similar to oaths that can be found in ancient Indo-European literature. It differs, however, in that the speaker does not necessarily commit to a course of action, but rather expresses a performative utterance, which is immediate and miraculous in nature.

Well-known examples

019 Visit of King Asoka to the Bodhi Tree (33769320382)

There are many examples in literature and in Asian history of people making a ''sacca-kiriyā''. The most well-known is that of the Buddha himself. On the evening of his enlightenment, as the Buddha is about to attain enlightenment, he is challenged by

Māra Māra is the highest-ranking goddess in Latvian mythology, Mother Earth, a feminine counterpart to Dievs. She takes spirits after death. She may be thought as the alternate side of Dievs (like in Yin and Yang). Other Latvian goddesses, somet ...

, the Buddhist personification of evil. Māra tries to stop the Buddha from attaining enlightenment by accusing him he has no right to sit on the seat beneath the tree of enlightenment, and challenging him to find a witness to his claim of enlightenment. The Buddha-to-be then calls Mother Earth to testify of his perfections of virtue on the evening of his enlightenment, the earth symbolizing truth and righteousness. He refers to the virtues he has practiced for many lifetimes. When the earth confirms the Buddha's claims, Māra retreats. In another example, the Buddha-to-be places a bowl upon the surface of the water. He declares that if he is to attain

Buddhahood In Buddhism, Buddha (; Pali, Sanskrit: 𑀩𑀼𑀤𑁆𑀥, बुद्ध), "awakened one", is a title for those who are awake, and have attained nirvana and Buddhahood through their own efforts and insight, without a teacher to point out ...

that evening, let the bowl float upwards against the stream, which then happens according to his declaration. In another widely quoted

Jātaka The Jātakas (meaning "Birth Story", "related to a birth") are a voluminous body of literature native to India which mainly concern the previous births of Gautama Buddha in both human and animal form. According to Peter Skilling, this genre is ...

story, a quail is about to see its nest and fellow birds consumed by a forest fire. After the bird makes a statement about the "efficacy of virtue" ('' pi, sīla-gunṇa'') and "efficacy of truth" ('' pi, sacca-guṇa''), and by expanding on the virtues of the Buddhas in the past, the fire miraculously retreats. A legendary example of a ''sacca-kiriyā'' referring to a future act is emperor

Ashoka Ashoka (, ; also ''Asoka''; 304 – 232 BCE), popularly known as Ashoka the Great, was the third emperor of the Maurya Empire of Indian subcontinent during to 232 BCE. His empire covered a large part of the Indian subcontinent, ...

, who vows that by the truth of his intention to support and sustain Buddhism, a dying Bodhi Tree may be saved, which then happens according to his vow. Another example raised by Indologist

Richard Gombrich Richard Francis Gombrich (; born 17 July 1937) is a British Indologist and scholar of Sanskrit, Pāli, and Buddhist studies. He was the Boden Professor of Sanskrit at the University of Oxford from 1976 to 2004. He is currently Founder-President ...

is that of the Sri Lankan King Duṭṭhagāmaṇi, who used a ''sacca-kiriyā'' in warfare. And more recently, the Buddhist reformer Anagārika Dharmapāla referred to his good intentions for restoring the pilgrimage site

Bodh Gaya Bodh Gaya is a religious site and place of pilgrimage associated with the Mahabodhi Temple Complex in Gaya district in the Indian state of Bihar. It is famous as it is the place where Gautama Buddha is said to have attained Enlightenment ( pi, ...

into Buddhist hands, and resolved that by those intentions help would come in this campaign. Examples of ''sacca-kiriyā'' in Indic literature

Motifs and principles

The ''sacca-kiriyā'' is a motif found in the stories of the Buddhist

Pali Canon The Pāli Canon is the standard collection of scriptures in the Theravada Buddhist tradition, as preserved in the Pāli language. It is the most complete extant early Buddhist canon. It derives mainly from the Tamrashatiya school. During th ...

and its commentaries, as well as in post-canonical works such as the Milindapañhā and the

s. The motif can also be found in Hindu and

texts. The motif of the ''sacca-kiriyā'' presumes a natural moral force operating in the world. In some stories, as well as in aspirations recorded in inscriptions, mention is also made of

merit Merit may refer to: Religion * Merit (Christianity) * Merit (Buddhism) * Punya (Hinduism) * Imputed righteousness in Reformed Christianity Companies and brands * Merit (cigarette), a brand of cigarettes made by Altria * Merit Energy Company, a ...

( pi, puñña, italic=yes; doing good works) as a force behind the miracles that occur. Sometimes the spiritual power of the

Triple Gem In Buddhism, refuge or taking refuge refers to a religious practice, which often includes a prayer or recitation performed at the beginning of the day or of a practice session. Since the period of Early Buddhism until present time, all Theravada ...

(the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Saṅgha), or that of

deities A deity or god is a supernatural being who is considered divine or sacred. The ''Oxford Dictionary of English'' defines deity as a god or goddess, or anything revered as divine. C. Scott Littleton defines a deity as "a being with powers greate ...

is also related to it. Nevertheless, the truth of the statement, its agreement to actual events or qualities, is the main principle that is believed to allow a ''sacca-kiriyā'' to work: in the words of Indologist Eugene Burlingame, "There is nothing that cannot be accomplished by the Truth. Men, gods, powers of nature, all animate and inanimate things alike obey the Truth." In the Milindapañhā, considered the

locus classicus {{Short pages monitor and with regard to the ''sacca-kiriyā'', religion scholar

Arvind Sharma Arvind Sharma is the Birks Professor of Comparative Religion at McGill University. Sharma's works focus on Hinduism, philosophy of religion. In editing books his works include ''Our Religions'' and ''Women in World Religions,'' ''Feminism in W ...

notes that Gandhi equated God with truth, or even placed truth above God, and morality above the metaphysical. Brown argued that the idea of the '' sacca-kiriyā'' has not only influenced

Gandhian philosophy Gandhism is a body of ideas that describes the inspiration, vision, and the life work of M.K. Gandhi. It is particularly associated with his contributions to the idea of nonviolent resistance, sometimes also called civil resistance. The ter ...

, but has also inspired the national Indian motto '' Satyaṃ eva jayate'', meaning 'Truth alone conquers', originating from the Muṇḍaka Upaniśad.

Other applications

''Sacca-kiriyās'' may have been used as a device to prove someone's innocence or truthfulness during an ordeal, as has been recorded in ancient Indian epics and classical dramas. This involved entering into a fire, and it was believed the innocent would survive the ordeal by the power of their truthfulness, expressed through a ''sacca-kiriyā''. However, in a Jain story relating a fire-ordeal, the accused survives by admitting her wrongdoing, rather than her innocence. Brown did not think that such ordeals were actual ''sacca-kiriyā'', though, as such passages merely teach "the widespread belief that Truth protects the righteous". Other applications of the ''sacca-kiriyā'' have also been observed. A ''sacca-kiriyā'' is inscribed at the gateway of the first ''stupa'' (monument) at

Sanchi Sanchi is a Buddhist complex, famous for its Great Stupa, on a hilltop at Sanchi Town in Raisen District of the States and territories of India, State of Madhya Pradesh, India. It is located, about 23 kilometres from Raisen, Raisen town, dist ...

with a deterrent statement to the effect that a vandal of the ''stupa'' will be cursed. Also, the Vedic ''

ṛṣi ''Rishi'' () is a term for an accomplished and enlightened person. They find mentions in various Vedic texts. Rishis are believed to have composed hymns of the Vedas. The Post-Vedic tradition of Hinduism regards the rishis as "great yogis" or ...

'' poets would usually close their hymns with a ''sacca-kiriyā''. Furthermore, statements very similar to the ''sacca-kiriyā'' were part of religious debates in ancient India, as the participants of the debate wagered their own lives, should they follow incorrect procedure during the debates. Thus, participants of debates are found to put their lives on the line in this manner in the Upaniṣads, in early Buddhist discourses, and in the accounts of the Chinese pilgrim

Xuan Zang Xuanzang (, ; 602–664), born Chen Hui / Chen Yi (), also known as Hiuen Tsang, was a 7th-century Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveler, and translator. He is known for the epoch-making contributions to Chinese Buddhism, the travelogue of ...

(602–664 CE). The motif of the ''sacca-kiriyā'' continues to feature in South-Asian literature, up until recent centuries. For example, Asian Studies scholar Keller Kimbrough writes that 18th-century Japanese poems contain statements very similar to a ''sacca-kiriya''. Sometimes used to conjure rain and alleviate drought, it was believed that such poetry had to be written with an honest intention to be effective. Apart from applications in religions that date from India, it has also been suggested some Zorastrianist texts can be explained as forms of ''sacca-kiriyā''.

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References

* * * * * * * * * * * * * {{Buddhism topics Buddhist mythology Buddhist belief and doctrine Hindu mythology Buddhist practices