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The Sino-Russian border conflicts (1652–1689) were a series of intermittent skirmishes between the
Qing dynasty The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speak ...
of China, with assistance from the
Joseon dynasty Joseon (; ; Middle Korean: 됴ᇢ〯션〮 Dyǒw syéon or 됴ᇢ〯션〯 Dyǒw syěon), officially the Great Joseon (; ), was the last dynastic kingdom of Korea, lasting just over 500 years. It was founded by Yi Seong-gye in July 1392 and r ...
of Korea, and the
Tsardom of Russia The Tsardom of Russia or Tsardom of Rus' also externally referenced as the Tsardom of Muscovy, was the centralized Russian state from the assumption of the title of Tsar by Ivan IV in 1547 until the foundation of the Russian Empire by Peter I ...
by the
Cossacks The Cossacks , es, cosaco , et, Kasakad, cazacii , fi, Kasakat, cazacii , french: cosaques , hu, kozákok, cazacii , it, cosacchi , orv, коза́ки, pl, Kozacy , pt, cossacos , ro, cazaci , russian: казаки́ or ...
in which the latter tried and failed to gain the land north of the
Amur River The Amur (russian: река́ Аму́р, ), or Heilong Jiang (, "Black Dragon River", ), is the world's tenth longest river, forming the border between the Russian Far East and Northeastern China (Inner Manchuria). The Amur proper is long ...
with disputes over the Amur region. The hostilities culminated in the Qing siege of the Cossack fort of
Albazin Albazino (russian: Албазино́; ) is a village ('' selo'') in Skovorodinsky District of Amur Oblast, Russia, noted as the site of Albazin (), the first Russian settlement on the Amur River. Before the arrival of Russians, Albazino belo ...
in 1686 and resulted in the
Treaty of Nerchinsk The Treaty of Nerchinsk () of 1689 was the first treaty between the Tsardom of Russia and the Qing dynasty of China. The Russians gave up the area north of the Amur River as far as the Stanovoy Range and kept the area between the Argun River ...
in 1689 which gave the land to China.


Background

The southeast corner of
Siberia Siberia ( ; rus, Сибирь, r=Sibir', p=sʲɪˈbʲirʲ, a=Ru-Сибирь.ogg) is an extensive geographical region, constituting all of North Asia, from the Ural Mountains in the west to the Pacific Ocean in the east. It has been a part ...
south of the
Stanovoy Range The Stanovoy Range (russian: Станово́й хребе́т, ''Stanovoy khrebet''; sah, Сир кура; ), is a mountain range located in the Sakha Republic and Amur Oblast, Far Eastern Federal District. It is also known as Sükebayatur a ...
was twice contested between Russia and China. Hydrologically, the Stanovoy Range separates the rivers that flow north into the Arctic from those that flow south into the
Amur River The Amur (russian: река́ Аму́р, ), or Heilong Jiang (, "Black Dragon River", ), is the world's tenth longest river, forming the border between the Russian Far East and Northeastern China (Inner Manchuria). The Amur proper is long ...
. Ecologically, the area is the southeastern edge of the Siberian
boreal forest Taiga (; rus, тайга́, p=tɐjˈɡa; relates to Mongolic and Turkic languages), generally referred to in North America as a boreal forest or snow forest, is a biome characterized by coniferous forests consisting mostly of pines, spruc ...
with some areas good for agriculture. Socially and politically, from about 600 AD, it was the northern fringe of the Chinese-Manchu world. Various Chinese dynasties would claim sovereignty, build forts and collect tribute when they were strong enough. The
Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...
Nurgan Regional Military Commission The Nurgan Regional Military Commission () was a Chinese administrative seat established in Manchuria during the Ming dynasty, located on the banks of the Amur River, about 100 km from the sea, at Nurgan city (modern Tyr, Russia). Nurgan ...
L. Carrington Godrich, Chaoying Fang (editors), "Dictionary of Ming Biography, 1368–1644". Volume I (A-L). Columbia University Press, 1976. built a fort on the Northern bank of the Amur at
Aigun Aigun (; Manchu language, Manchu: ''aihūn hoton''; ) was a historic China, Chinese Town (China), town in northern Manchuria, situated on the right bank of the Amur River, some south (downstream) from the central urban area of Heihe (which is a ...
, Numerous later editions are available as well, including on
on Google Books
Du Halde refers to the Yongle-era fort, the predecessor of
Aigun Aigun (; Manchu language, Manchu: ''aihūn hoton''; ) was a historic China, Chinese Town (China), town in northern Manchuria, situated on the right bank of the Amur River, some south (downstream) from the central urban area of Heihe (which is a ...
, as ''Aykom''. There seem to be few, if any, mentions of this project in other available literature.
and established an administrative seat at Telin, modern Tyr, Russia above
Nikolaevsk-on-Amur Nikolayevsk-on-Amur (russian: Никола́евск-на-Аму́ре, translit=Nikoláyevsk-na-Amúrye) is a town in Khabarovsk Krai, Russia located on the Amur River close to its liman in the Pacific Ocean. Population: Geography The town ...
. Russian expansion into Siberia began with the conquest of the Khanate of Sibir in 1582. By 1643 they reached the Pacific at
Okhotsk Okhotsk ( rus, Охотск, p=ɐˈxotsk) is an urban locality (a work settlement) and the administrative center of Okhotsky District of Khabarovsk Krai, Russia, located at the mouth of the Okhota River on the Sea of Okhotsk. Population: ...
. East of the
Yenisei River The Yenisey (russian: Енисе́й, ''Yeniséy''; mn, Горлог мөрөн, ''Gorlog mörön''; Buryat: Горлог мүрэн, ''Gorlog müren''; Tuvan: Улуг-Хем, ''Uluğ-Hem''; Khakas: Ким суғ, ''Kim suğ''; Ket: Ӄук, ...
there was little land fit for agriculture, except
Dauria Transbaikal, Trans-Baikal, Transbaikalia ( rus, Забайка́лье, r=Zabaykalye, p=zəbɐjˈkalʲjɪ), or Dauria (, ''Dauriya'') is a mountainous region to the east of or "beyond" (trans-) Lake Baikal in Far Eastern Russia. The steppe and ...
, the land between the
Stanovoy Range The Stanovoy Range (russian: Станово́й хребе́т, ''Stanovoy khrebet''; sah, Сир кура; ), is a mountain range located in the Sakha Republic and Amur Oblast, Far Eastern Federal District. It is also known as Sükebayatur a ...
and the
Amur River The Amur (russian: река́ Аму́р, ), or Heilong Jiang (, "Black Dragon River", ), is the world's tenth longest river, forming the border between the Russian Far East and Northeastern China (Inner Manchuria). The Amur proper is long ...
which was nominally subject to the Qing dynasty. In 1643, Russian adventurers spilled over the Stanovoy Range, but by 1689 they were driven back by the Qing. The land was populated by some 9,000
Daurs The Daur people (Khalkha Mongolian: Дагуур, ''Daguur''; ) are a Mongolic people in Northeast China. The Daur form one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognised in the People's Republic of China. They numbered 131,992 according to the la ...
on the Zeya River, 14,000
Duchers The Duchers (russian: дючеры or дучеры) was the Russian name of the people populating the shores of the middle course of the Amur River, approximately from the mouth of the Zeya down to the mouth of the Ussuri, and possibly even somew ...
downstream and several thousand
Tungus Tungusic peoples are an ethno-linguistic group formed by the speakers of Tungusic languages (or Manchu–Tungus languages). They are native to Siberia and Northeast Asia. The Tungusic phylum is divided into two main branches, northern (Evenic or ...
and
Nivkhs The Nivkh, or Gilyak (also Nivkhs or Nivkhi, or Gilyaks; ethnonym: Нивхгу, ''Nʼivxgu'' (Amur) or Ниғвңгун, ''Nʼiɣvŋgun'' (E. Sakhalin) "the people"), are an indigenous ethnic group inhabiting the northern half of Sakhalin Islan ...
toward the river mouth. The first Russians to hear of Dauria were probably
Ivan Moskvitin Ivan Yuryevich Moskvitin (russian: Иван Юрьевич Москвитин) (? - after 1647) was a Russian explorer, presumably a native of Moscow, who led a Russian reconnaissance party to the Sea of Okhotsk, becoming the first Russian to reac ...
and Maxim Perfilev about 1640. In 1859/60 the area was annexed by Russia and quickly filled up with a Russian population.


Timeline


1639-1643 : Qing Campaign against the indigenous rulers

* December 1639-May 1640 : 1st battle - the natives and the Qing : Battle of Gualar (russian: селение Гуалар) : between 2 regiments of Manchu and a detachment of 500
Solon Solon ( grc-gre, Σόλων;  BC) was an Athenian statesman, constitutional lawmaker and poet. He is remembered particularly for his efforts to legislate against political, economic and moral decline in Archaic Athens.Aristotle ''Politic ...
-
Daurs The Daur people (Khalkha Mongolian: Дагуур, ''Daguur''; ) are a Mongolic people in Northeast China. The Daur form one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognised in the People's Republic of China. They numbered 131,992 according to the la ...
А.М.Пастухов (A.M. Pastukhov
К вопросу о характере укреплений поселков приамурских племен середины XVII века и значении нанайского термина «гасян»
(Regarding the fortification techniques used in the settlements of the Amur Valley tribes in the mid-17th century, and the meaning of the Nanai word "гасян" (''gasyan''))
led by the
Solon Solon ( grc-gre, Σόλων;  BC) was an Athenian statesman, constitutional lawmaker and poet. He is remembered particularly for his efforts to legislate against political, economic and moral decline in Archaic Athens.Aristotle ''Politic ...
- Evenk leader Bombogor ( Chinese: 博木博果爾 or 博穆博果爾
pinyin Hanyu Pinyin (), often shortened to just pinyin, is the official romanization system for Standard Mandarin Chinese in China, and to some extent, in Singapore and Malaysia. It is often used to teach Mandarin, normally written in Chinese fo ...
:Bomboguoer) while the second native leader Bardači ( ''Bā'ěrdáqí'') kept neutral. * September 1640 : 2nd battle - the natives and the Qing : Battle of Yaksa (russian: Якса): between the natives (
Solon Solon ( grc-gre, Σόλων;  BC) was an Athenian statesman, constitutional lawmaker and poet. He is remembered particularly for his efforts to legislate against political, economic and moral decline in Archaic Athens.Aristotle ''Politic ...
, Daur, Oroqen) and the
Manchus The Manchus (; ) are a Tungusic East Asian ethnic group native to Manchuria in Northeast Asia. They are an officially recognized ethnic minority in China and the people from whom Manchuria derives its name. The Later Jin (1616–1636) and ...
. * May 1643 : 3rd battle. The native tribes submitted to the Qing Empire.


1643-1644 :

Vasili Poyarkov Vassili Danilovich Poyarkov (Василий Данилович Поярков in Russian, ? - after 1668) was the first Russian explorer of the Amur region. The Russian expansion into Siberia began with the conquest of the Khanate of Sibir in 158 ...

* Winter 1643 - Spring 1644 : a detachment of a Russian expedition led by the Cossack
Vasili Poyarkov Vassili Danilovich Poyarkov (Василий Данилович Поярков in Russian, ? - after 1668) was the first Russian explorer of the Amur region. The Russian expansion into Siberia began with the conquest of the Khanate of Sibir in 158 ...
explored the stream of the Jingkiri river, present-day
Zeya Zeya may refer to: People *Aung Zeya, full name of Alaungpaya, king of Burma in 1752–1760 * Zeya (Burmese actor) (1916–1996), Burmese actor and director *Zeya Thaw (born 1981), alternative spelling of the name of Zayar Thaw, Burmese politici ...
, and the Amur rivers.
Vassili Poyarkov Vassili Danilovich Poyarkov (Василий Данилович Поярков in Russian, ? - after 1668) was the first Russian explorer of the Amur region. The Russian expansion into Siberia began with the conquest of the Khanate of Sibir in 15 ...
traveled from
Yakutsk Yakutsk (russian: Якутск, p=jɪˈkutsk; sah, Дьокуускай, translit=Djokuuskay, ) is the capital city of the Sakha Republic, Russia, located about south of the Arctic Circle. Fueled by the mining industry, Yakutsk has become one ...
south to the Zeya River. He then sailed down the
Amur River The Amur (russian: река́ Аму́р, ), or Heilong Jiang (, "Black Dragon River", ), is the world's tenth longest river, forming the border between the Russian Far East and Northeastern China (Inner Manchuria). The Amur proper is long ...
to its mouth and then north along the Okhotsk coast, returning to Yakutsk three years later.


1649-1653 :

Yerofey Khabarov Yerofey Pavlovich Khabarov or Svyatitsky (russian: Ерофе́й Па́влович Хаба́ров (Святи́тский), ; the first name is often spelled Ярофей (Yarofey) in contemporary accounts; 1603 – after 1671), was a Russia ...

* 1650-1651 : In 1649 Yerofei Khabarov found a better route to the upper Amur and quickly returned to Yakutsk where he recommended that a larger force be sent to conquer the region. He returned the same year and built winter quarters at
Albazin Albazino (russian: Албазино́; ) is a village ('' selo'') in Skovorodinsky District of Amur Oblast, Russia, noted as the site of Albazin (), the first Russian settlement on the Amur River. Before the arrival of Russians, Albazino belo ...
at the northernmost point on the river. He occupied the Daur's fort
Albazin Albazino (russian: Албазино́; ) is a village ('' selo'') in Skovorodinsky District of Amur Oblast, Russia, noted as the site of Albazin (), the first Russian settlement on the Amur River. Before the arrival of Russians, Albazino belo ...
after subduing the Daurs led by Arbaši ( ''Ā'ěrbāxī''). The
Russian conquest of Siberia The Russian conquest of Siberia took place in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, when the Khanate of Sibir became a loose political structure of vassalages that were being undermined by the activities of Russian explorers. Although outnumber ...
was accompanied by massacres due to indigenous resistance to colonization by the Russian Cossacks, who violently suppressed the natives. The Russian Cossacks were named luocha (羅剎), after Demons found in Buddhist mythology, by the Amur natives because of their cruelty towards the Amur tribes people, who were subjects of the Qing. * March 24, 1652 : Battle of Achansk Next summer he sailed down the Amur and built a fort at Achansk (Wuzhala (乌扎拉)) probably near present-day
Khabarovsk Khabarovsk ( rus, Хабaровск, a=Хабаровск.ogg, r=Habárovsk, p=xɐˈbarəfsk) is the largest city and the administrative centre of Khabarovsk Krai, Russia,Law #109 located from the China–Russia border, at the confluence of ...
. Again there was fighting and the natives called for the assistance of the Qing. On 24 March 1652, Achansk was unsuccessfully attacked by a large Qing force 00_Manchu_soldiers_from_Ninguta_and_about_1500_Daurs_and_Duchers_led_by_the_Manchu_general_known_as_Haise_(海色),_or_Izenei_(Изеней_or_Исиней).Август_1652_г._Из_отписки_приказного_человека_Е.П._Хабарова_якутскому_воеводе_Д.А._Францбекову_о_походе_по_р._Амуру.
_An_excerpt_from_Khabarov's_report_to_the_Yakutsk_Voivode_D.A.Frantsbekov,_August_1652.)_
__Haise_was_later_executed_for_his_poor_performance.
_As_soon_as_the_ice_broke_up_Khabarov_withdrew_upriverОксана_ГАЙНУТДИНОВА_(Oksana_Gainutdinova

_(The_mystery_of_Fort_Achansk)
__and_built_winter_quarters_at_ 00_Manchu_soldiers_from_Ninguta_and_about_1500_Daurs_and_Duchers_led_by_the_Manchu_general_known_as_Haise_(海色),_or_Izenei_(Изеней_or_Исиней).Август_1652_г._Из_отписки_приказного_человека_Е.П._Хабарова_якутскому_воеводе_Д.А._Францбекову_о_походе_по_р._Амуру.
_An_excerpt_from_Khabarov's_report_to_the_Yakutsk_Voivode_D.A.Frantsbekov,_August_1652.)_
__Haise_was_later_executed_for_his_poor_performance.
_As_soon_as_the_ice_broke_up_Khabarov_withdrew_upriverОксана_ГАЙНУТДИНОВА_(Oksana_Gainutdinova

_(The_mystery_of_Fort_Achansk)
__and_built_winter_quarters_at_Huma_County">Kumarsk._In_the_spring_of_1653_reinforcements_arrived_under_Dmitry_Zinoviev._The_two_quarreled,_Khabarov_was_arrested_and_escorted_to_Moscow_for_investigation. Cattle_and_horses_in_the_hundreds_were_looted_and_243_ethnic__Daur_Mongolic_peoples.html" ;"title="Huma_County.html" ;"title="Ninguta.html" ;"title="00 Manchu soldiers from Ninguta">00 Manchu soldiers from Ninguta and about 1500 Daurs and Duchers led by the Manchu general known as Haise (海色), or Izenei (Изеней or Исиней).Август 1652 г. Из отписки приказного человека Е.П. Хабарова якутскому воеводе Д.А. Францбекову о походе по р. Амуру.
An excerpt from Khabarov's report to the Yakutsk Voivode D.A.Frantsbekov, August 1652.)
Haise was later executed for his poor performance. As soon as the ice broke up Khabarov withdrew upriverОксана ГАЙНУТДИНОВА (Oksana Gainutdinova

(The mystery of Fort Achansk)
and built winter quarters at Huma County">Kumarsk. In the spring of 1653 reinforcements arrived under Dmitry Zinoviev. The two quarreled, Khabarov was arrested and escorted to Moscow for investigation. Cattle and horses in the hundreds were looted and 243 ethnic Daur Mongolic peoples">Mongolic girls and women were raped by Russian Cossacks under Yerofey Khabarov when he invaded the Amur river basin in the 1650s.


1654-1658 :

Onufriy Stepanov Onufriy Stepanov (russian: Онуфрий Степанов) (died June 30, 1658) was a Siberian Cossack and explorer of the Amur River. For background see Russian–Manchu border conflicts. 1653: After Yerofey Khabarov’s arrest and departure t ...

* March–April 1655 : Huma County, Siege of Komar * 1655 : Russian Tsardom has established a "military governor of the Amur region". * 1657 : 2nd Battle of Sharhody.
Onufriy Stepanov Onufriy Stepanov (russian: Онуфрий Степанов) (died June 30, 1658) was a Siberian Cossack and explorer of the Amur River. For background see Russian–Manchu border conflicts. 1653: After Yerofey Khabarov’s arrest and departure t ...
was left in charge with about 400-500 men. They had little difficulty plundering the natives and defeating the local Qing troops. The Qing responded with two policies. First they ordered the local population to withdraw, thereby ending the grain production that had attracted the Russians in the first place. Second they appointed the experienced general Sarhuda (who himself was from the Nierbo village from the mouth of Sungari) as the garrison commander at
Ninguta Ning'an () is a city located approximately southwest of Mudanjiang, in the southeast of Heilongjiang province, China, bordering Jilin province to the south. It is located on the Mudanjiang River (formerly known as Hurka River), which flows nort ...
. In 1657 he built more than 40 ships at the village of Ula (modern Jilin).. In 1658 a large Qing fleet under Sarhuda caught up with Stepanov and killed him and about 220 Cossacks. A few escaped and became freebooters.


1654-1658 : The Sino-Korean allied expeditions against Russians

In the following operations significant Korean forces under King Hyojong were included into Manchu-led troops. The campaigns became known in Korean historiography as ''Naseon Jeongbeol'' (나선정벌, literally Russian conquest). * January 1654 : the first time a Korean contingent arrived to join a Manchu army near
Ninguta Ning'an () is a city located approximately southwest of Mudanjiang, in the southeast of Heilongjiang province, China, bordering Jilin province to the south. It is located on the Mudanjiang River (formerly known as Hurka River), which flows nort ...
. * July 1654 : Battle of Hutong (on lower reaches of the
Sungari The Songhua or Sunghwa River (also Haixi or Xingal, russian: Сунгари ''Sungari'') is one of the primary rivers of China, and the longest tributary of the Amur. It flows about from the Changbai Mountains on the China–North Korea bor ...
at the present-day
Yilan Yilan may refer to: China * Yilan County, Heilongjiang (依兰县), county of central Heilongjiang province, People's Republic of China * Yilan Town, Heilongjiang (依兰镇), seat of Yilan County * Yilan, Jilin (依兰镇), town in Yanji Taiwan ...
) between a joint Korean-Manchu army of 1500 men led by Byeon Geup (
Hangul The Korean alphabet, known as Hangul, . Hangul may also be written as following South Korea's standard Romanization. ( ) in South Korea and Chosŏn'gŭl in North Korea, is the modern official writing system for the Korean language. The l ...
: 변급
Hanja Hanja (Hangul: ; Hanja: , ), alternatively known as Hancha, are Chinese characters () used in the writing of Korean. Hanja was used as early as the Gojoseon period, the first ever Korean kingdom. (, ) refers to Sino-Korean vocabulary, ...
: 邊岌) against 400-500 Russians. * 1658 : Big warships capable of fighting Russian ships were built by Han Chinese shipbuilders for the Qing forces. Sarhuda's Qing fleet from
Ninguta Ning'an () is a city located approximately southwest of Mudanjiang, in the southeast of Heilongjiang province, China, bordering Jilin province to the south. It is located on the Mudanjiang River (formerly known as Hurka River), which flows nort ...
, including a large Korean contingent led by
Shin Ryu Shin Ryu (; 1619–1680) was a general of the Joseon dynasty. He was born into a yangban family of the Pyeongsan Shin lineage in modern-day Chilgok County, Gyeongsangbuk-do, near where his shrine now stands in Yangmok-myeon. He passed the mili ...
sails down the Sungari into the Amur, and meets
Onufriy Stepanov Onufriy Stepanov (russian: Онуфрий Степанов) (died June 30, 1658) was a Siberian Cossack and explorer of the Amur River. For background see Russian–Manchu border conflicts. 1653: After Yerofey Khabarov’s arrest and departure t ...
's smaller fleet from
Albazin Albazino (russian: Албазино́; ) is a village ('' selo'') in Skovorodinsky District of Amur Oblast, Russia, noted as the site of Albazin (), the first Russian settlement on the Amur River. Before the arrival of Russians, Albazino belo ...
. In a naval battle in the Amur a few miles downstream from the mouth of the Sungari (July 10, 1658). The 11-ship Russian flotilla is destroyed (the survivors flee on just one ship), and Stepanov himself dies.A.M. Pastukhov,
Корейская пехотная тактика самсу в XVII веке и проблема участия корейских войск в Амурских походах маньчжурской армии
" (Korean infantry tactic ''samsu'' (三手) in the 17th century, and the issues related to the Korean troops' participation in the Manchus' Amur campaigns)
By 1658 the Chinese had wiped out the Russians below
Nerchinsk Nerchinsk ( rus, Не́рчинск; bua, Нэршүү, ''Nershüü''; mn, Нэрчүү, ''Nerchüü''; mnc, m=, v=Nibcu, a=Nibqu; zh, t=涅尔琴斯克(尼布楚), p=Niè'ěrqínsīkè (Níbùchǔ)) is a town and the administrative ce ...
and the deserted land became a haven for outlaws and renegade Cossacks. In 1660 a large band of Russians was destroyed. They had some difficulty pursuing the Cossacks since their own policy had removed most of the local food. In the 1670s the Chinese attempted to drive the Russians away from the Okhotsk coast, reaching as far north as the Maya River.


1665-1689: Albazin

In 1665 Nikifor Chernigovsky murdered the voyvoda of Ilimsk and fled to the Amur and reoccupied the fort at
Albazin Albazino (russian: Албазино́; ) is a village ('' selo'') in Skovorodinsky District of Amur Oblast, Russia, noted as the site of Albazin (), the first Russian settlement on the Amur River. Before the arrival of Russians, Albazino belo ...
, which became the center of a petty kingdom which he named
Jaxa The is the Japanese national air and space agency. Through the merger of three previously independent organizations, JAXA was formed on 1 October 2003. JAXA is responsible for research, technology development and launch of satellites into o ...
. In 1670 it was unsuccessfully attacked. In 1672 Albazin received the Czar's pardon and was officially recognized. From 1673 to 1683 the Qing dynasty were tied up suppressing a rebellion in the south, the
Revolt of the Three Feudatories The Revolt of the Three Feudatories, () also known as the Rebellion of Wu Sangui, was a rebellion in China lasting from 1673 to 1681, during the early reign of the Kangxi Emperor (r. 1661–1722) of the Qing dynasty (1644–1912). The revolt was ...
. In 1682 or 1684 a voyvoda was appointed by Moscow. After extensive reconnaissance, the Qing made their first attempt to conquer Albazin in 1685. At the time Albazin was a wooden fort with only 300 muskets, 3 cannons, and low stocks of gunpowder; regardless, the Chinese concluded that it could not be taken from its tiny garrison unless "red barbarian cannons" ( Hongyipao) were used. Three thousand Qing soldiers initially assailed the fort. A detachment made a feint on the south of the fort, while other soldiers secretly moved Hongyipao to the north of the fort and to its sides, to carry out a pincer attack. In total, the Qing force included 100-150 light artillery, 40-50 large siege guns, and 100 musketeers, with the rest of the men using traditional weapons. On the first day, 100 Russians were killed or wounded by the massive artillery barrage. After the wooden walls were set ablaze, the Russians surrendered and acknowledged Qing suzerainty. After this, the Russian garrison was ordered to build more powerful walls. With the help of Prussian soldier Afanasii Ivanovich Beiton (who was second in command of the fort), the walls were eventually built up to a height of five and a half meters and a thickness of seven and a half meters. In July 1686, the Qing sent another force of 3,000 troops (chiefly cavalry and including 30-40 "newly cast" cannons), supported by 150 supply boats manned by 3,000 to 6,000 more men, to retake the fort from the garrison of 736 Russian soldiers and militia (who had 11 cannons). The Russians rejected a Qing demand for surrender, and another battle ensued on July 18. Over the next few weeks, the Qing made various attempts to take the fort, but were always driven back with heavy losses, while Russian combat losses were negligible. The Russians even began sallying out for counterattacks to destroy Qing siege engines, one sally killing 150 Chinese troops for the loss of only 21 Russians. The Qing were befuddled by the design of the fort which, like contemporary European artillery forts, often left the Chinese soldiers caught in crossfires when they attempted to place their siege lines and artillery according to traditional tactics. The Qing general, Langtan, abandoned assaults in August and instead decided to starve the fort out by blocking Russian access to the nearby river. Eventually, the Qing investment in Albazin became so large that the fortifications of the siege camps dwarfed those of Albazin itself. Moscow sent elite musketeers to relieve the fort but the Qing controlled all approaches and no sled or sleigh could slip in. Both armies suffered from disease and starvation: Russian combatants and civilians alike died en masse from scurvy, typhus, and cholera, while the Chinese starved and froze outside the walls and were sometimes driven to
cannibalism Cannibalism is the act of consuming another individual of the same species as food. Cannibalism is a common ecological interaction in the animal kingdom and has been recorded in more than 1,500 species. Human cannibalism is well documented, b ...
. By November, 600 Russian men and more than 1,500 Qing soldiers had died. In October 1686, Russian envoys arrived in Beijing from Moscow requesting peace. In December, a messenger from the Qing emperor arrived at the siege lines announcing a pause to the siege, and that his men, as a show of good faith, were to offer food and medicine to the remaining Russians, of which there were only 24. Albazin was eventually ceded to the Qing in the 1689 Treaty of Nerchinsk, in exchange for trading privileges in Beijing and the right to keep the city of Nerchinsk.


1685-1687 : The Albazin/Yakesa Campaign

Former
Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...
loyalist Han Chinese troops who had served under
Zheng Chenggong Zheng Chenggong, Prince of Yanping (; 27 August 1624 – 23 June 1662), better known internationally as Koxinga (), was a Ming loyalist general who resisted the Qing conquest of China in the 17th century, fighting them on China's southeastern ...
and who specialized at fighting with rattan shields and swords (Tengpaiying) 藤牌营 were recommended to the
Kangxi Emperor The Kangxi Emperor (4 May 1654– 20 December 1722), also known by his temple name Emperor Shengzu of Qing, born Xuanye, was the third emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the second Qing emperor to rule over China proper, reigning from 1661 to ...
to reinforce Albazin against the Russians. Kangxi was impressed by a demonstration of their techniques and ordered 500 of them to defend Albazin, under Lin Xingzhu () and He You (), former Koxinga followers, and these rattan shield troops did not suffer a single casualty when they defeated and cut down Russian forces traveling by rafts on the river, only using the rattan shields and swords while fighting naked. * May–July 1685 : The siege of Albazin - The Qing used former Ming loyalist
Han Chinese The Han Chinese () or Han people (), are an East Asian ethnic group native to China. They constitute the world's largest ethnic group, making up about 18% of the global population and consisting of various subgroups speaking distinctive v ...
naval specialists who had served under the Zheng family in Taiwan in the siege of Albazin. The Russians were fought against by the Taiwan based former soldiers of Koxinga. The nautical military understanding of the former Taiwan sailors were the reason for their participation in the battles. * July–October 1686 : The siege of New Albazin. see also
Outer Manchuria Outer Manchuria (russian: Приаму́рье, translit=Priamurye; zh, s=外满洲, t=外滿洲, p=Wài Mǎnzhōu), or Outer Northeast China ( zh, s=外东北, t=外東北, p=Wài Dōngběi), refers to a territory in Northeast Asia that is no ...
" he Russian reinforcements were coming down to the fort on the riverThereupon he arquis Linordered all our marines to take off their clothes and jump into the water. Each wore a rattan shield on his head and held a huge sword in his hand. Thus they swam forward. The Russians were so frightened that they all shouted: 'Behold, the big-capped Tartars!' Since our marines were in the water, they could not use their firearms. Our sailors wore rattan shields to protect their heads so that enemy bullets and arrows could not pierce them. Our marines used long swords to cut the enemy's ankles. The Russians fell into the river, most of them either killed or wounded. The rest fled and escaped. Lin Hsing-chu had not lost a single marine when he returned to take part in besieging the city." written by Yang Hai-Chai who was related to Marquis Lin, a participant in the war
Most of the Russians withdrew to Nerchinsk, but a few joined the Qing, becoming the Albazin Cossacks at Peking. The Chinese withdrew from the area, but the Russians, hearing of this, returned with 800 men under Aleksei Tolbuzin and reoccupied the fort. Their original purpose was merely to harvest the local grain, a rare commodity in this part of Siberia. From June 1686, the fort was again besieged. Either the siege was raised in December when the armies learned that the two empires were engaged in peace negotiations, or the fort was captured after an 18-month siege and Tolbuzin was killed.John J. Stephen, The Russian Far East, 1994,page 31 At that time less than 100 defenders were left alive.G. Patrick March, Eastern Destiny: the Russians in Asia and the North Pacific, 1996.


Treaties

In 1689, by the
Treaty of Nerchinsk The Treaty of Nerchinsk () of 1689 was the first treaty between the Tsardom of Russia and the Qing dynasty of China. The Russians gave up the area north of the Amur River as far as the Stanovoy Range and kept the area between the Argun River ...
, the Russians abandoned the whole Amur country including Albazin. The frontier was established as the Argun River and the
Stanovoy Range The Stanovoy Range (russian: Станово́й хребе́т, ''Stanovoy khrebet''; sah, Сир кура; ), is a mountain range located in the Sakha Republic and Amur Oblast, Far Eastern Federal District. It is also known as Sükebayatur a ...
. In 1727 the
Treaty of Kyakhta The Treaty of Kyakhta (or Kiakhta),, ; , Xiao'erjing: بُلِيًاصِٿِ\ٿِاكْتُ تِيَوْيُؤ; mn, Хиагтын гэрээ, Hiagtiin geree, along with the Treaty of Nerchinsk (1689), regulated the relations between Imperial ...
confirmed and clarified this border and regulated Russo-Chinese trade. In 1858, almost two centuries after the fall of Albazin, by the
Treaty of Aigun The Treaty of Aigun (Russian: Айгунский договор; ) was an 1858 treaty between the Russian Empire and the Qing dynasty that established much of the modern border between the Russian Far East and China by ceding much of Manchur ...
, Russia annexed the land between the Stanovoy Range and the Amur (commonly referred to in Russian as ''Priamurye'', i.e. the "Lands along the Amur"). In 1860, with the Convention of Beijing, Russia annexed the
Primorye Primorsky Krai (russian: Приморский край, r=Primorsky kray, p=prʲɪˈmorskʲɪj kraj), informally known as Primorye (, ), is a federal subject (a krai) of Russia, located in the Far East region of the country and is a part of t ...
(i.e. the "Maritime Region") down to
Vladivostok Vladivostok ( rus, Владивосто́к, a=Владивосток.ogg, p=vɫədʲɪvɐˈstok) is the largest city and the administrative center of Primorsky Krai, Russia. The city is located around the Golden Horn Bay on the Sea of Japan, ...
, an area that had not been in contention in the 17th century. Those treaties allowed the
Amur Annexation The Amur Annexation was the annexation of the southeast corner of Siberia by the Russian Empire in 1858–1860 through a series of unequal treaties forced upon the Qing dynasty of China. The two areas involved are Priamurye between the Amur Rive ...
.


See also

*
Manchuria under Qing rule Manchuria under Qing rule was the rule of the Qing dynasty (and its predecessor the Later Jin dynasty) over Manchuria, including today's Northeast China (Inner Manchuria) and Outer Manchuria. The Qing dynasty itself was established by the Manch ...
* Sino-Soviet conflict (1929) *
Sino-Soviet border conflict The Sino-Soviet border conflict was a seven-month undeclared military conflict between the Soviet Union and China in 1969, following the Sino-Soviet split. The most serious border clash, which brought the world's two largest communist states ...
*
Amur Annexation The Amur Annexation was the annexation of the southeast corner of Siberia by the Russian Empire in 1858–1860 through a series of unequal treaties forced upon the Qing dynasty of China. The two areas involved are Priamurye between the Amur Rive ...
*
Russian invasion of Manchuria The Russian invasion of Manchuria occurred in the aftermath of the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) when concerns regarding Qing China's defeat by the Empire of Japan, and Japan's brief occupation of Liaodong, caused the Russian Empire ...
*
Jaxa (state) Jaxa (; Polish: ''Jaxa'', ''Jaksa'') was a 17th-century microstate in North Asia with its capital in Albazino existing between 1665 and 1674. It was located on the border of the Tsardom of Russia and Qing China, by the Amur river. Its population ...


References

Works cited * * * * * *Kim, Loretta Eumie. Harvard University, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2009. 3350967. http://search.proquest.com/openview/adb782089d82b61c05596cb02915a3e6/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y * * 1. Page 133 -152 China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia By Peter C. Perdue Published by Harvard University Press, 2005 * * {{DEFAULTSORT:Sino-Russian Border Conflicts 17th-century conflicts Military history of Manchuria History of Siberia History of Amur Oblast Wars involving the Qing dynasty Wars involving Russia Wars involving Joseon History of the Cossacks in Russia 17th-century military history of Russia China–Russia military relations Eight Banners China–Russian Empire relations