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Righteous armies, sometimes called irregular armies or militias, are informal civilian militias that have appeared several times in
Korean history The Lower Paleolithic era in the Korean Peninsula and Manchuria began roughly half a million years ago. Christopher J. Norton, "The Current State of Korean Paleoanthropology", (2000), ''Journal of Human Evolution'', 38: 803–825. The earliest ...
, when the national armies were in need of assistance. The first righteous armies emerged during the Khitan invasions of Korea and the
Mongol invasions of Korea A series of campaigns were conducted between 1231 and 1270 by the Mongol Empire against the Goryeo dynasty of Korea. There were seven major campaigns at tremendous cost to civilian lives, the last campaign made Goryeo a vassal state of the Yu ...
. They subsequently rose up during the
Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) The Japanese invasions of Korea of 1592–1598 involved two separate yet linked invasions: an initial invasion in 1592 (), a brief truce in 1596, and a second invasion in 1597 (). The conflict ended in 1598 with the withdrawal of Japanese force ...
, the
first First or 1st is the ordinal form of the number one (#1). First or 1st may also refer to: *World record, specifically the first instance of a particular achievement Arts and media Music * 1$T, American rapper, singer-songwriter, DJ, and reco ...
and
second The second (symbol: s) is the unit of time in the International System of Units (SI), historically defined as of a day – this factor derived from the division of the day first into 24 hours, then to 60 minutes and finally to 60 seconds each ...
Manchu invasions, and during the Japanese occupation and preceding events. During the long period of Japanese intervention and annexation from 1890 to 1945, the disbanded imperial guard, and Confucian scholars, as well as farmers, formed over 60 successive righteous armies to fight for Korean freedom on the Korean peninsula. These were preceded by the
Donghak Donghak (formerly spelled Tonghak; ) was an academic movement in Korean Neo-Confucianism founded in 1860 by Choe Je-u. The Donghak movement arose as a reaction to seohak (), and called for a return to the "Way of Heaven". While Donghak originat ...
movement, and succeeded by various
Korean independence movements The Korean independence movement was a military and diplomatic campaign to achieve the independence of Korea from Japan. After the Japanese annexation of Korea in 1910, Korea's domestic resistance peaked in the March 1st Movement of 1919, which ...
in the 1920s and beyond, which declared Korean independence from Japanese occupation.


During the Japanese invasions under Hideyoshi of Korea

The righteous armies were an
irregular military Irregular military is any non-standard military component that is distinct from a country's national armed forces. Being defined by exclusion, there is significant variance in what comes under the term. It can refer to the type of military orga ...
that fought the Japanese army that twice invaded
Korea Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic of ...
during the
Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) The Japanese invasions of Korea of 1592–1598 involved two separate yet linked invasions: an initial invasion in 1592 (), a brief truce in 1596, and a second invasion in 1597 (). The conflict ended in 1598 with the withdrawal of Japanese force ...
. Righteous armies were most active in the
Jeolla Jeolla Province (, ) was one of the historical Eight Provinces of Korea during the Kingdom of Joseon in today Southwestern Korea. It consisted of the modern South Korean provinces of North Jeolla, South Jeolla and Gwangju Metropolitan City as w ...
Province in the southwestern area of Korea. Righteous armies included peasants, scholars, former government officials, and Buddhist warrior monks as well. Righteous armies were important during the war because a significant portion of the expected government organized resistance had been destroyed in Gyeongsang and Chungcheong Provinces in the south by the force of Japanese arms at the outset. The ''natural'' defenders had been stripped away and the residue had been called north to help protect the fleeing king. Moreover, many of the district officers had obtained their commissions not through merit, but by bribery or influence, and were essentially incompetent or cowards. This was highlighted in their performance and in the performance of their units in the early days of the conflict. This kind of resistance was totally unexpected by the Japanese invaders. In Japanese warfare, when the leaders fall, civilians would simply submit. However, upon learning that the Korean people were forming organized resistance against them, the Japanese were shocked. Japanese strategies were based on the premise that the people of Korea would submit to them and assist their supply line by giving their food. However, this was not the case and righteous armies continued to interrupt the Japanese supply line. People's voluntary resistance movements were one of the major reasons why Japanese invasion was not successful.


In Gyeongsang province

*
Hapcheon Hapcheon County (''Hapcheon-gun'') is a county in South Gyeongsang Province, South Korea. Located in northwestern Gyeongsangnam-do, the county is surrounded by Changnyeong as well as Euiryeong to the Southeast, Geochang as well as Sancheong-gun t ...
(June 6, 1592): Kim Myeon and
Jeong In-hong Jeong In-hong ( ko, 정인홍, 鄭仁弘; 26 September 1535 – 3 April 1623) was a scholar-official of the Joseon period of Korea. A general and a leader of the Northerners faction. He served as Chief State Councillor during the reign of Gwang ...
against
Mōri Terumoto Mōri Terumoto (毛利 輝元, January 22, 1553 – June 2, 1625) was a Japanese ''daimyō''. The son of Mōri Takamoto, and grandson and successor of the great warlord Mōri Motonari, he fought against Oda Nobunaga but was eventually overcom ...
* Chogye (June 7, 1592): Son In-gap against
Mōri Terumoto Mōri Terumoto (毛利 輝元, January 22, 1553 – June 2, 1625) was a Japanese ''daimyō''. The son of Mōri Takamoto, and grandson and successor of the great warlord Mōri Motonari, he fought against Oda Nobunaga but was eventually overcom ...
* Ucheokhyeon (July 10, 1592): Kim Myeon and
Kim Seong-il Kim Seong-il (; 1538–1593) was a Joseon dynasty politician and ambassador. He was a member of the Eastern faction in the Joseon court. He served as envoy to Japan in a Tongsinsa, along with Ho Song and Hwang Yun-gil in 1590, and met with th ...
against
Kobayakawa Takakage was a samurai and daimyō (feudal lord) during the Sengoku period and Azuchi–Momoyama period. He was the third son of Mōri Motonari who was adopted by the Kobayakawa clan and became its 14th clan head. He merged the two branches of the Kobay ...
*
Yeongcheon Yeongcheon () is a city in North Gyeongsang Province, South Korea. Yeongcheon is located southeast of Seoul, in the southeast of North Gyeongsang Province. It is on the Gyeongbu Expressway linking Seoul and Busan, and is also the junction of t ...
(July 27, 1592): Gwon Ung-su and Park Jin against
Fukushima Masanori was a Japanese ''daimyō'' of the late Sengoku period to early Edo period who served as lord of the Hiroshima Domain. A retainer of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, he fought in the Battle of Shizugatake in 1583, and soon became known as one of Seven Spea ...
*
Uiryeong Uiryeong County () is a county in South Gyeongsang Province, South Korea. Uiryeong County has a population of 27,550 (2019) and is one of the least populated counties in South Korea. History In 1938, Lee Byung-chull, a resident of Uiryeong, fo ...
:
Gwak Jae-u Gwak Jae-u (; 1552–1617) was a Korean military general and patriot from Uiryeong. He was called the "Red Robe General" (천강홍의장군, 天降紅衣將軍) after his habit of wearing a coat made of red silk. In 1592, nine days into the Imjin ...
against
Kobayakawa Takakage was a samurai and daimyō (feudal lord) during the Sengoku period and Azuchi–Momoyama period. He was the third son of Mōri Motonari who was adopted by the Kobayakawa clan and became its 14th clan head. He merged the two branches of the Kobay ...
* Hyeonpung: Gwak Jae-u against
Hashiba Hidekatsu Hall, John Whitney ''et al.'' (1991). ''The Cambridge History of Japan'', volume 4, p. 115 was a Japanese samurai, and the fourth son of the famed feudal warlord Oda Nobunaga and was adopted by Toyotomi Hideyoshi at a young age. At the time of N ...
* Yeongsan: Gwak Jae-u against Hashiba Hidekatsu


In Jeolla province

*
Damyang Damyang County (''Damyang-gun'') is a county in Jeollanam-do, South Korea. Tourism is a major local industry. Notable local products include bamboo goods and strawberries. Damyang is not to be confused with Danyang, which is located in eastern ...
(June 25, 1592) :
Go Gyeong-myeong Ko Kyŏng-myŏng (; 1533 – 1592) was a Joseon dynasty scholar and Yangban, who became a Righteous Army leader in the Imjin War. He was killed while attacking Geumsan in 1592.Turnbull, Stephen: ''Samurai Invasion. Japan's Korean War 1592–98'' ( ...
and Yang Dae-park *
Naju Naju () is a city in South Jeolla Province, South Korea. The capital of South Jeolla was located at Naju until it was moved to Gwangju in 1895. The name Jeolla actually originates from the first character of Jeonju () and the first character of N ...
:
Kim Cheon-il Kim Chŏn-il (; 1537 – July 27, 1593) was a Korean military leader in the 16th century. He was a Joseon dynasty official and became a ''righteous army'' leader during the Imjin war to repel the 1592 Japanese invasion of Korea. He was killed in th ...
* Gwangju :
Kim Deok-nyeong Kim or KIM may refer to: Names * Kim (given name) * Kim (surname) ** Kim (Korean surname) *** Kim family (disambiguation), several dynasties **** Kim family (North Korea), the rulers of North Korea since Kim Il-sung in 1948 ** Kim, Vietnamese f ...


In Chungcheong province

*
Geumsan Geumsan County (''Geumsan-gun''; Korean: 금산군) is a county in South Chungcheong Province (Before 1963, Geumsan was in Jeollabuk-do), South Korea. History Administrative district name, Geumsan-gun, have nowadays was originate from the union of ...
( July 9, 1592) : Go Gyeong-myeong and Gwak Yong against
Kobayakawa Takakage was a samurai and daimyō (feudal lord) during the Sengoku period and Azuchi–Momoyama period. He was the third son of Mōri Motonari who was adopted by the Kobayakawa clan and became its 14th clan head. He merged the two branches of the Kobay ...
* Okcheon :
Jo Heon Jo Heon (, 1544 – 1592) was a Joseon official and militia leader in Korea at the time of the Imjin war. He believed that Japan under Toyotomi Hideyoshi posed a threat to Korean security, but his warnings were not heeded. When war broke out in ...
*
Geumsan Geumsan County (''Geumsan-gun''; Korean: 금산군) is a county in South Chungcheong Province (Before 1963, Geumsan was in Jeollabuk-do), South Korea. History Administrative district name, Geumsan-gun, have nowadays was originate from the union of ...
: Yeonggyu and
Jo Heon Jo Heon (, 1544 – 1592) was a Joseon official and militia leader in Korea at the time of the Imjin war. He believed that Japan under Toyotomi Hideyoshi posed a threat to Korean security, but his warnings were not heeded. When war broke out in ...
*
Cheongju Cheongju () is the capital and largest city of North Chungcheong Province in South Korea. History Cheongju has been an important provincial town since ancient times. In the Cheongju Mountains, specifically in the one where Sangdang Sanseong is ...
: Yeonggyu and
Jo Heon Jo Heon (, 1544 – 1592) was a Joseon official and militia leader in Korea at the time of the Imjin war. He believed that Japan under Toyotomi Hideyoshi posed a threat to Korean security, but his warnings were not heeded. When war broke out in ...


In Gangwon province


In Hwanghae province

* Yeonan :
Yi Jeong-am Yi Jeong-am (; 1541 – September 10, 1600) was a Korean military official of the mid-Joseon Period. Life Yi Jeong-am passed the licentiate examination in the fall of 1558 and passed the regular literary examination in 1561 as one of the thi ...


In Pyeongan province

* Mountain Myohyang :
Seosan Seosan () is a city in South Chungcheong Province, South Korea, with a population of roughly 175,000 according to the 2017 census. Located at the northwestern end of South Chungcheong Province, it is bounded by Dangjin City, Naepo New Town, Yes ...


In Hamgyeong province

*
Gilju Kilju, sometimes romanized as Kilchu, is a county in North Hamgyong province, North Korea. The county seat is Kilju Town. History The area around Kilju was part of the ancient Goguryeo kingdom and was long inhabited by various Jurchen tribes. I ...
: Jeong Mun-bu


During the Japanese colonial period (1910–1945)

Late
Joseon dynasty Joseon (; ; Middle Korean: 됴ᇢ〯션〮 Dyǒw syéon or 됴ᇢ〯션〯 Dyǒw syěon), officially the Great Joseon (; ), was the last dynastic kingdom of Korea, lasting just over 500 years. It was founded by Yi Seong-gye in July 1392 and r ...
period
Korean nationalism Korean nationalism can be viewed in two different contexts. One encompasses various movements throughout history to maintain a Korean cultural identity, history, and ethnicity (or "race"). This ethnic nationalism was mainly forged in oppositio ...
outgrew the unplanned, spontaneous, and disorganized Donghak movement, and became more violent as Japanese colonizers began a brutal regime throughout the Korean peninsula and pursued repressive policies against the Korean people. The Japanese colonial authorities fought with rifles, state-of-the-art cannons, machine guns, repeaters, mounted cavalry reconnaissance units in the mountains, and an entrenched class of informers and criminals developed over the previous decade before the battles began. Koreans fought with antique muzzle-loaders, staves, iron bars, and their hands. There were rare instances of modern weapons, and a few enemy weapons captured. For at least thirteen years after 1905, small irregular forces, often led by regular army commanders, fought skirmishes and battles throughout Korea against Japanese police, armies, and underworld mercenaries who functioned to support Japanese corporations in Korea, and as well-armed Japanese settlers who seized Korean farms and land. In one period, according to Japanese records in ''Boto Tobatsu-shi'' (Annals of the Subjugation of the Insurgent), between October 1907 and April 1908, over 1,908 attacks were made by the Korean people against the invaders. While most attacks were done using available weapons, and bare hands, international arms dealers profited. Arms dealers and governments who supplied the Korean resistance included Chinese arms dealers from across the Yalu and in coastal waters; German arms dealers provided Mausers, and a French cruiser in September 1908, resupplied Korean Catholic armies in payment for gold at exorbitant prices. Smugglers from Japan as well supplied Murada weapons, with links to anti-Meiji forces who hoped to see Ito and his clan toppled in the wake of disasters in the Japanese economy.{{Citation needed , date= October 2021 After the Russian revolution, some weaponry was diverted from the White forces into what is now North Korea, and supporters built there, however this was sparse and while white Russian mercenaries fought against the Japanese, this was a minor element.


During the Righteous Armies Wars

The Righteous Army was formed by Yu In-seok and other Confucian scholars during the Peasant Wars. Its ranks swelled after the Queen's murder by the Japanese troops and Koreans. Under the leadership of Min Jeong-sik,
Choe Ik-hyeon Choe Ik-hyeon (; 1833–1906, also transliterated as Choe Ik-hyun) was a Korean Joseon Dynasty scholar, politician, philosopher, and general of the Korean Righteous Army guerrilla forces. He was a strong supporter of Neo-Confucianism and a very v ...
and Shin Dol-seok, the Righteous Army attacked the Japanese army, Japanese merchants and pro-Japanese bureaucrats in the provinces of
Gangwon Gangwon or Kangwŏn may refer to: * Gangwon Province (historical), the Goryeo, Joseon Dynasty and the Japanese Korean province * Gangwon Province (South Korea), a province of South Korea, with its capital at Chuncheon. Before the division of Kore ...
,
Chungcheong Chungcheong (''Chungcheong-do''; ) was one of the eight provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Chungcheong was located in the southwest of Korea. The provincial capital was located at Gongju, which had been the capital of the kingdom ...
,
Jeolla Jeolla Province (, ) was one of the historical Eight Provinces of Korea during the Kingdom of Joseon in today Southwestern Korea. It consisted of the modern South Korean provinces of North Jeolla, South Jeolla and Gwangju Metropolitan City as w ...
and
Gyeongsang Gyeongsang ( ko, 경상도, ''Gyeongsang-do''; ) was one of the eight provinces of Korea during the Joseon dynasty. Gyeongsang was located in the southeast of Korea. The provincial capital was Daegu. The region was the birthplace of the Kingdo ...
. Choe Ik-hyeon was captured by the Japanese and taken to
Tsushima Island is an island of the Japanese archipelago situated in-between the Tsushima Strait and Korea Strait, approximately halfway between Kyushu and the Korean Peninsula. The main island of Tsushima, once a single island, was divided into two in 1671 by ...
where he went on
hunger strike A hunger strike is a method of non-violent resistance in which participants fast as an act of political protest, or to provoke a feeling of guilt in others, usually with the objective to achieve a specific goal, such as a policy change. Mos ...
and finally died in 1906. Shin Dol-seok, an uneducated peasant commanded over 3,000 troops. Among the troops were former government soldiers, poor peasants, fishermen, tiger hunters, miners, merchants, and laborers. The Korean army was disbanded on August 1, 1907. The Army was led by 1st Battalion Commander Major Park Seung-hwan, who later committed suicide, occurred after the disbandment, led by former soldiers of the Korean Army against Japan in
Namdaemun Gate Namdaemun (, ), officially known as the Sungnyemun (, ), is one of the Eight Gates in the Fortress Wall of Seoul, South Korea, which surrounded the city in the Joseon dynasty. It is located in Jung-gu between Seoul Station and Seoul Plaza, ...
. The disbanded army joined the Righteous Armies and together they solidified a foundation for the Righteous Armies battle. In 1907, the Righteous Army under the command of Yi In-yeong massed 10,000 troops to liberate Seoul and defeat the Japanese. The Army came within 12 km of Seoul but could not withstand the Japanese counter-offensive. The Righteous Army was no match for two infantry divisions of 20,000 Japanese soldiers backed by warships moored near Incheon. The Righteous Army retreated from Seoul and the war went on for two more years. Over 17,000 Righteous Army soldiers were killed and more than 37,000 were wounded in combat. Unable to fight the Japanese army head-on, the Righteous Army split into small bands of partisans to carry on the War of Liberation in China, Siberia, and the Baekdu Mountains in Korea. The Japanese troops first quashed the Peasant Army and then disbanded the remained of the government army. Many of the surviving guerrilla and anti-Japanese government troops fled to
Manchuria Manchuria is an exonym (derived from the endodemonym "Manchu") for a historical and geographic region in Northeast Asia encompassing the entirety of present-day Northeast China (Inner Manchuria) and parts of the Russian Far East (Outer Manchu ...
and
Primorsky Krai Primorsky Krai (russian: Приморский край, r=Primorsky kray, p=prʲɪˈmorskʲɪj kraj), informally known as Primorye (, ), is a federal subject (a krai) of Russia, located in the Far East region of the country and is a part of the ...
to carry on their fight. In 1910, Japan annexed Korea and starting the period of Japanese rule.


Armies and orders of battle

Of the sixty righteous armies, the list and descriptions below follow what is known of the names of the more well-known armies and their sequential appearance in combat; individual generals and named figures are given larger biographies on separate articles which cite more historical background.


In 1895: Righteous army of Eulmi

* Yi So-ung * No Eung-gyu * Gi U-man * Yi Gang-nyeon


In 1905: Righteous army of Eulsa

*
Choe Ik-hyeon Choe Ik-hyeon (; 1833–1906, also transliterated as Choe Ik-hyun) was a Korean Joseon Dynasty scholar, politician, philosopher, and general of the Korean Righteous Army guerrilla forces. He was a strong supporter of Neo-Confucianism and a very v ...
* Min Jong-sik * Shin Dol-seok *Jeong Yong-gi * Yi Han-gu * Im Byeong-chan


In 1907: Righteous army of Jeongmi

*
Hong Beom-do Hong Beom-do (; russian: Хон Бом До; August 27, 1868 – October 25, 1943), was a Korean independence activist and general. Biography Hong was born in Chasong, North Pyongan. During his early life, he was a hunter who lived in Korea d ...
*
Yun Hui-sun Yun Hui-sun, also known as Yoon Hee-Soon (1860–1935), was a Korean militia leader and organizer, known for her work opposing Japanese colonial rule of Korea. After the Japanese assassination of Korean Empress Myeongseong caused national unrest in ...
* Cha Doseon * Kim Su-min * Min Geung-ho


13 province alliance righteous army in 1908

*Commander in chief: Yi In-yeong *Commander: Heo Wi *Representative of
Gangwon Gangwon or Kangwŏn may refer to: * Gangwon Province (historical), the Goryeo, Joseon Dynasty and the Japanese Korean province * Gangwon Province (South Korea), a province of South Korea, with its capital at Chuncheon. Before the division of Kore ...
: Min Geung-ho *Representative of
Chungcheong Chungcheong (''Chungcheong-do''; ) was one of the eight provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Chungcheong was located in the southwest of Korea. The provincial capital was located at Gongju, which had been the capital of the kingdom ...
: Yi Gang-nyeon *Representative of
Gyeongsang Gyeongsang ( ko, 경상도, ''Gyeongsang-do''; ) was one of the eight provinces of Korea during the Joseon dynasty. Gyeongsang was located in the southeast of Korea. The provincial capital was Daegu. The region was the birthplace of the Kingdo ...
: Park Jeong-bin *Representative of
Gyeonggi Gyeonggi-do (, ) is the most populous province in South Korea. Its name, ''Gyeonggi'', means "京 (the capital) and 畿 (the surrounding area)". Thus, ''Gyeonggi-do'' can be translated as "Seoul and the surrounding areas of Seoul". Seoul, the ...
,
Hwanghae Hwanghae Province (''Hwanghae-do'' ) was one of the Eight Provinces of Korea during the Joseon era. Hwanghae was located in the northwest of Korea. The provincial capital was Haeju. The regional name for the province was Haeseo. History In 139 ...
: Gwon Jung-hui *Representative of
Pyeongan Pyeong-an Province (, ) was one of Eight Provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Pyeong'an was located in the northwest of Korea. The provincial capital was Pyeongyang (now Pyongyang, North Korea). History Pyeong'an Province was formed in ...
: Bang In-gwan *Representative of North Hamgyeong: Jeong Bong-jun *Representative of
Jeolla Jeolla Province (, ) was one of the historical Eight Provinces of Korea during the Kingdom of Joseon in today Southwestern Korea. It consisted of the modern South Korean provinces of North Jeolla, South Jeolla and Gwangju Metropolitan City as w ...
: Mun Tae-su


See also

*
History of Korea The Lower Paleolithic era in the Korean Peninsula and Manchuria began roughly half a million years ago. Christopher J. Norton, "The Current State of Korean Paleoanthropology", (2000), ''Journal of Human Evolution'', 38: 803–825. The earliest ...
*
Namdaemun Battle "Battle of Namdaemun")--> The Battle of Namdaemun (남대문 전투), also known as the Battle of the South Great Gate, was an insurgency by the Korean army against Japanese forces in Korea as a reaction to the disbandment of the Korean army fo ...
*
Korean independence movement The Korean independence movement was a military and diplomatic campaign to achieve the independence of Korea from Japan. After the Japanese annexation of Korea in 1910, Korea's domestic resistance peaked in the March 1st Movement of 1919, which ...
*
Korean Liberation Army The Korean Liberation Army, also known as the Korean Restoration Army established on September 17, 1940, in Chungking, China, was the armed force of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea. Its commandant was General Ji Cheong-cheon, ...
*
Battle of Qingshanli The Battle of Qingshanli was fought over six days in October 1920 between the Imperial Japanese Army and Korean armed groups in a densely wooded region of eastern Manchuria called Qīngshānlǐ ( ja, 青山里, ''Seizanri''; ko, 청산리, ''Cheo ...


References

* William E. Henthorn, ''A History of Korea'', Free Press: 1971 Military history of Korea Joseon dynasty Korea under Japanese rule Militias in Asia