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A rhapsode ( el, ῥαψῳδός, "rhapsōidos") or, in modern usage, rhapsodist, refers to a classical Greek professional performer of
epic poetry An epic poem, or simply an epic, is a lengthy narrative poem typically about the extraordinary deeds of extraordinary characters who, in dealings with gods or other superhuman forces, gave shape to the mortal universe for their descendants. ...
in the fifth and fourth centuries BC (and perhaps earlier). Rhapsodes notably performed the epics of Homer ('' Iliad'' and '' Odyssey'') but also the wisdom and catalogue poetry of Hesiod and the satires of
Archilochus Archilochus (; grc-gre, Ἀρχίλοχος ''Arkhilokhos''; c. 680 – c. 645 BC) was a Greek lyric poet of the Archaic period from the island of Paros. He is celebrated for his versatile and innovative use of poetic meters, and is the ea ...
and others. Plato's dialogue ''
Ion An ion () is an atom or molecule with a net electrical charge. The charge of an electron is considered to be negative by convention and this charge is equal and opposite to the charge of a proton, which is considered to be positive by conv ...
'', in which Socrates confronts a star player rhapsode, remains the most coherent source of information on these artists. Often, rhapsodes are depicted in Greek art, wearing their signature cloak and carrying a staff. This equipment is also characteristic of travellers in general, implying that rhapsodes were itinerant performers, moving from town to town. Rhapsodes originated in Ionia, which has been sometimes regarded as Homer's birthplace, and were also known as Homeridai, disciples of Homer, or "singers of stitched lays."


Etymology and usage

The term ''rhapsode'' is derived from ''rhapsōidein'' (ῥαψῳδεῖν), meaning "to sew songs ogether. This word illustrates how the oral epic poet, or ''rhapsode'', would build a repertoire of diverse myths, tales and jokes to include in the content of the epic poem. Thus it was possible, through experience and improvisatory skills, for him to shift the content of the
epos The point of sale (POS) or point of purchase (POP) is the time and place at which a retail transaction is completed. At the point of sale, the merchant calculates the amount owed by the customer, indicates that amount, may prepare an invoice f ...
according to the preferred taste of a specific location's audience. However, the outer framework of the epic would remain virtually the same in every "singing", thus securing the projection of underlying themes such as of morality or honour. The performance of epic poetry was called in classical Greek ''rhapsōidia'' (ῥαψῳδία), and its performer ''rhapsōidos''. The word does not occur in the early epics, which use the word ''
aoidos The Greek word ' (; plural: / ) referred to a classical Greek singer. In modern Homeric scholarship ' is used by some as the technical term for a skilled oral epic poet in the tradition to which the ''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey'' are believed to bel ...
'' (ἀοιδός "singer") for performers in all genres, including this one. It is unknown whether Hesiod and the poet(s) of the '' Iliad'' and '' Odyssey'' would have recognised and accepted the name of rhapsode; it has been argued by Walter Burkert, and is accepted by some recent scholars, that ''rhapsōidos'' was by definition a performer of a fixed, written text. The word ''rhapsōidos'' was in use as early as
Pindar Pindar (; grc-gre, Πίνδαρος , ; la, Pindarus; ) was an Ancient Greek lyric poet from Thebes. Of the canonical nine lyric poets of ancient Greece, his work is the best preserved. Quintilian wrote, "Of the nine lyric poets, Pindar is ...
(522–443 BC), who implies two different explanations of it, "singer of stitched verse", and "singer with the staff". Of these the first is etymologically correct; the second was suggested by the fact, for which there is early evidence, that the singer was accustomed to hold a staff (ῥάβδος ''rhabdos'') in his hand, perhaps, like the sceptre in the Homeric assembly, as a symbol of the right to a hearing or to "emphasize the rhythm or to give grandeur to their gestures". The etymological meaning is interesting because it is an exact metaphor for what oral narrative poets do: they stitch together formulas, lines and type-scenes in the course of performance. There are indications in Pindar and other authors that oral epic was still a living and popular tradition in the early fifth century BC; all the later evidence, however, is that rhapsodes worked from written texts, and in some cases were compelled by law to do so.


Performance

It is certain that rhapsodes performed competitively, contending for prizes at religious festivals, and that this practice was already well-established by the fifth century BC. The '' Iliad'' alludes to the myth of
Thamyris In Greek mythology, Thamyris ( Ancient Greek: Θάμυρις, ''Thámuris'') was a Thracian singer. He is notable in Greek mythology for reportedly being a lover of Hyacinth and thus to have been the first male to have loved another male, but wh ...
, the Thracian singer, who boasted that he could defeat even the Muses in song. He competed with them, was defeated, and was punished for his presumption with the loss of his ability to sing. Historically, the practice is first evident in Hesiod's claim that he performed a song at the funeral games for Amphidamas in Euboea and won a prize. Competitive singing is depicted vividly in the '' Homeric Hymn to Apollo'' and mentioned in the two ''Hymns to Aphrodite''. The latter of these may evidently be taken to belong to Salamis in Cyprus and the festival of the Cyprian Aphrodite, in the same way that the ''Hymn to Apollo'' belongs to Delos and the Delian gathering. An early historical mention of rhapsodes occurs in the ''
Histories Histories or, in Latin, Historiae may refer to: * the plural of history * ''Histories'' (Herodotus), by Herodotus * ''The Histories'', by Timaeus * ''The Histories'' (Polybius), by Polybius * ''Histories'' by Gaius Sallustius Crispus (Sallust), ...
'' of Herodotus (c. 440 BC). He tells the story that at
Sicyon Sicyon (; el, Σικυών; ''gen''.: Σικυῶνος) or Sikyon was an ancient Greek city state situated in the northern Peloponnesus between Corinth and Achaea on the territory of the present-day regional unit of Corinthia. An ancient mon ...
the ruler
Cleisthenes Cleisthenes ( ; grc-gre, Κλεισθένης), or Clisthenes (c. 570c. 508 BC), was an ancient Athenian lawgiver credited with reforming the constitution of ancient Athens and setting it on a democratic footing in 508 BC. For these accomplishm ...
(600–560 BC) expelled the rhapsodes on account of the poems of Homer, because they promoted Argos and the
Argives Argos (; el, Άργος ; grc, label=Ancient and Katharevousa, Ἄργος ) is a city in Argolis, Peloponnese, Greece and is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, and the oldest in Europe. It is the largest city in Ar ...
. This description applies very well to the '' Iliad'', in which "Argives" is one of the alternate names for the Greek warriors; it may have suited the '' Thebaid'' still better, since Argos was named in the first line of that poem. The incident seems to show that poems performed by rhapsodes had political and propagandistic importance in the Peloponnese in the early sixth century BC. At Athens, by 330 BC, there was a law that rhapsodes should perform the Homeric poems at every Panathenaic festival; this law is appealed to as glory of Athens by the orator
Lycurgus Lycurgus or Lykourgos () may refer to: People * Lycurgus (king of Sparta) (third century BC) * Lycurgus (lawgiver) (eighth century BC), creator of constitution of Sparta * Lycurgus of Athens (fourth century BC), one of the 'ten notable orators' ...
. Perhaps therefore such a custom was exceptional, and we do not know when or by whom it was introduced, although the Platonic dialogue '' Hipparchus'' (not really by Plato, but probably of the fourth century BC) attributes it to Hipparchus, son of Peisistratos (Athens). The ''Hipparchus'' adds that the law required the rhapsodists to follow on from one another in order, "as they still do". This recurs in a different form in the much later statement of
Diogenes Laërtius Diogenes Laërtius ( ; grc-gre, Διογένης Λαέρτιος, ; ) was a biographer of the Greek philosophers. Nothing is definitively known about his life, but his surviving ''Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers'' is a principal sourc ...
(1.2.57) that Solon made a law that the poems should be recited "with prompting". Many Athenian laws were falsely attributed to early lawgivers, but it is at least clear that by the fourth century the Homeric poems were a compulsory part of the Panathenaea, and were to be recited in order. They are too long for a single rhapsode or for a single day's performance. Therefore, they had to be divided into parts, and each rhapsode had to take his assigned part (otherwise they would have chosen favourite or prize passages). Complementary evidence on oral performance of poetry in classical Greece comes in the form of references to a family, clan, or professional association of '' Homeridae'' (literally "children of Homer"). These certainly had an existence in the fifth and fourth centuries BC and certainly performed poems attributed to Homer.
Pindar Pindar (; grc-gre, Πίνδαρος , ; la, Pindarus; ) was an Ancient Greek lyric poet from Thebes. Of the canonical nine lyric poets of ancient Greece, his work is the best preserved. Quintilian wrote, "Of the nine lyric poets, Pindar is ...
seems to count the Homeridae as rhapsodes;Pindar, ''Nemean Odes'' 2.1-5. other sources do not specifically confirm this categorisation.


See also

* ''
Aoidos The Greek word ' (; plural: / ) referred to a classical Greek singer. In modern Homeric scholarship ' is used by some as the technical term for a skilled oral epic poet in the tradition to which the ''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey'' are believed to bel ...
'' *
aulos An ''aulos'' ( grc, αὐλός, plural , ''auloi'') or ''tibia'' (Latin) was an ancient Greek wind instrument, depicted often in art and also attested by archaeology. Though ''aulos'' is often translated as "flute" or "double flute", it was us ...
*
kitharode A kitharode ( Latinized citharode) : ( translit. Greek) * citharode (Anglicised translit. Latin) * kitharode (Anglicised translit. Greek) : * citharede (rare) * citharoede (rare) : * citharist (English translation Latin) * kitharist (English t ...
* Homeridae


Notes

5th-century BC establishments in Greece 4th-century BC disestablishments in Greece Ancient Greek epic poetry Ancient Greek theatre Obsolete occupations Entertainment occupations Oral epic poets Poets