Retainers, also known as ''house guests'' (), ''invited guests'' () or ''catered guests'' (), were a special
social group
In the social sciences, a social group can be defined as two or more people who interact with one another, share similar characteristics, and collectively have a sense of unity. Regardless, social groups come in a myriad of sizes and varieties ...
in
Ancient China
The earliest known written records of the history of China date from as early as 1250 BC, from the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC), during the reign of king Wu Ding. Ancient historical texts such as the '' Book of Documents'' (early chapt ...
from pre-
Qin period to
Han dynasty
The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Emperor Gaozu of Han, Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by th ...
, who lived as dependent employees under a
nobleman
Nobility is a social class found in many societies that have an aristocracy. It is normally ranked immediately below royalty. Nobility has often been an estate of the realm with many exclusive functions and characteristics. The characteris ...
, an
officeholder or a powerful
landlord
A landlord is the owner of a house, apartment, condominium, land, or real estate which is rented or leased to an individual or business, who is called a tenant (also a ''lessee'' or ''renter''). When a juristic person is in this position, t ...
.
Retainers typically stayed long-term at the residence of the employer, catered and provisioned by the host, and also obtained through him other benefits such as administrative power, reputation,
upward mobility
Social mobility is the movement of individuals, families, households or other categories of people within or between social strata in a society. It is a change in social status relative to one's current social location within a given society ...
and social status. In return, a retainer would serve and provide personal services to his host, usually as
advisor
An adviser or advisor is normally a person with more and deeper knowledge in a specific area and usually also includes persons with cross-functional and multidisciplinary expertise. An adviser's role is that of a mentor or guide and differs categor ...
s,
clerk
A clerk is a white-collar worker who conducts general office tasks, or a worker who performs similar sales-related tasks in a retail environment. The responsibilities of clerical workers commonly include record keeping, filing, staffing service ...
s and
bodyguard
A bodyguard (or close protection officer/operative) is a type of security guard, government law enforcement officer, or servicemember who protects a person or a group of people — usually witnesses, high-ranking public officials or officers, ...
s, but sometimes as dedicated
lieutenant
A lieutenant ( , ; abbreviated Lt., Lt, LT, Lieut and similar) is a commissioned officer rank in the armed forces of many nations.
The meaning of lieutenant differs in different militaries (see comparative military ranks), but it is often ...
s or
mercenaries
A mercenary, sometimes Pseudonym, also known as a soldier of fortune or hired gun, is a private individual, particularly a soldier, that joins a military conflict for personal profit, is otherwise an outsider to the conflict, and is not a memb ...
for more dangerous tasks such as
espionage
Espionage, spying, or intelligence gathering is the act of obtaining secret or confidential information ( intelligence) from non-disclosed sources or divulging of the same without the permission of the holder of the information for a tang ...
,
assassination
Assassination is the murder of a prominent or important person, such as a head of state, head of government, politician, world leader, member of a royal family or CEO. The murder of a celebrity, activist, or artist, though they may not have ...
and
warfare
War is an intense armed conflict between states, governments, societies, or paramilitary groups such as mercenaries, insurgents, and militias. It is generally characterized by extreme violence, destruction, and mortality, using regu ...
. Although the bond is one of
social contract
In moral and political philosophy, the social contract is a theory or model that originated during the Age of Enlightenment and usually, although not always, concerns the legitimacy of the authority of the state over the individual.
Social ...
, a retainer was often free to come and go outside of duty without needing permission, and he could leave the service without noticing if he felt mistreated or disapproved of the behavior of his host.
The historical development
The practice of
elite
In political and sociological theory, the elite (french: élite, from la, eligere, to select or to sort out) are a small group of powerful people who hold a disproportionate amount of wealth, privilege, political power, or skill in a group. ...
s keeping retainers as
private aids can be traced back at least to the
Warring States period
The Warring States period () was an era in History of China#Ancient China, ancient Chinese history characterized by warfare, as well as bureaucratic and military reforms and consolidation. It followed the Spring and Autumn period and concluded ...
(ca. 476-221 BCE). Ancient Chinese social structure was changing during this time, the system of feudal states created by the
Western Zhou dynasty
The Western Zhou ( zh, c=, p=Xīzhōu; c. 1045 BC – 771 BC) was a royal dynasty of China and the first half of the Zhou dynasty. It began when King Wu of Zhou overthrew the Shang dynasty at the Battle of Muye and ended when the Quanrong n ...
underwent enormous changes after 771 BCE with the flight of the Zhou court to Chengzhou (modern-day Luoyang) and the diminution of the court's relevance and power. The
sovereign
''Sovereign'' is a title which can be applied to the highest leader in various categories. The word is borrowed from Old French , which is ultimately derived from the Latin , meaning 'above'.
The roles of a sovereign vary from monarch, ruler or ...
(king of Zhou) was merely a figurehead and the social hierarchy which formerly had depended on blood-relationship to the king of the Zhou was severely impacted by the move. The Spring and Autumn period led to a few states gaining power at the expense of many others, the latter no longer able to depend on central authority for legitimacy or protection. During the Warring States period, many rulers claimed the Mandate of Heaven to justify their conquest of other states and spread their influence. The number of retainers one was able to invest seems to have been a status symbol, and keeping retainers also served as a means to augment political power. A retainer could with his own ability and efforts acquire benefits and improve his social status. Therefore, there many noblemen kept retainers, and some of them, up to about three thousand retainers.
This pre-Qin practice of keeping retainers was continued in
Qin times (BCE 221–207).
Li Si
Li Si (Mandarin: ; BCSeptember or October 208 BC) was a Chinese philosopher, politician, and calligrapher of the Qin dynasty. He served as Chancellor (or Prime Minister) from 246 to 208 BC under two rulers: Qin Shi Huang, the king of the Qin ...
李斯 (BCE 280–208), the imperial chancellor, and
Zhao Gao 赵高, the powerful eunuch, each kept a number of retainers.
Having retainers was still very popular in
Han times, the largest number of retainers reported for the Han was ca. one thousand. Under the protection of a powerful master a retainer usually was able to avoid the payment of taxes. Furthermore, the government had difficulty in levying labor and military service from the retainers of powerful person. Under the protection of a master some guests engaged I robbery, murder, and other unlawful activities. It seems that there developed a sort of patron-client relationship. The host became more demanding and arrogant, while the retainers became more subservient.
The number of retainers kept by a host again increased in the era of the
Three Kingdoms
The Three Kingdoms () from 220 to 280 AD was the tripartite division of China among the dynastic states of Cao Wei, Shu Han, and Eastern Wu. The Three Kingdoms period was preceded by the Eastern Han dynasty and was followed by the West ...
(220-280 CE). There were two instances of men who kept more than a thousand retainers. This sudden increase is understandable: during the wars and disturbed periods of the Later Han and thereafter, every powerful person was ambitious to use his strength to acquire political power and tended to keep a large number of retainers who actually were his personal troops.
From the end of the Early Han the retainers began to participate in production, particularly in the cultivation of land. This tendency was more dominant at the end of the Later Han and in the years of the Three Kingdoms. For example, a provincial governor sent ten of his retainers to build a house and plant orange trees. The family derived a profit worth several thousand rolls of silk from the produce yearly and became wealthy. They actually became tenants, who paid labor and earned remunerations.
The role of the host
The host was expected to provide lodging, food, clothing and even carriages for his retainers and to treat them generously. Some of the most honored retainers were even given luxurious articles such as pearls and jade. Obviously only the wealthy nobles and officials could afford to support a large number of retainers.
Prince Tian Wen 田文 (?-279 BCE) of
Qi (state)
Qi, or Ch'i in Wade–Giles romanization, was a state of the Zhou dynasty-era in ancient China, variously reckoned as a march, duchy, and independent kingdom. Its capital was Linzi, located in present-day Shandong.
Qi was founded shortly ...
齐,
Prince Zhao Sheng 趙勝 (?- 251 BCE) of
Zhao (state)
Zhao () was one of the seven major states during the Warring States period of ancient China. It was created from the three-way Partition of Jin, together with Han and Wei, in the 5th century BC. Zhao gained significant strength from the mil ...
趙,
Prince Wei Wuji 魏無忌 (?-243 BCE) of Wei, and
Chancellor Huang Xie 黄歇 (?-238 BCE) of the State of
Chu (state)
Chu, or Ch'u in Wade–Giles romanization, (, Hanyu Pinyin: Chǔ, Old Chinese: ''*s-r̥aʔ'') was a Zhou dynasty vassal state. Their first ruler was King Wu of Chu in the early 8th century BCE. Chu was located in the south of the Zhou ...
, all tried to have more and more retainers. A prince with such an enormous number of retainers under his command usually was powerful enough to control his own state. Sometimes a state did not even dare to fight with a neighboring state because the ruler had thousands of retainers.
While the number of retainers kept by a master could be enormous, they must have varied greatly in personality and qualification; and of course their selection depended heavily on the attitudes and disposition of the patron.
The social status of retainers
In the pre-Qin time, the social status of a retainer was not an inferior one. A master, though much superior in political and social status as well as in wealth, had to treat his retainers politely. But guests did not all have the same status, nor were they all treated the same. As a rule, those who engaged in humble occupation and were looked down upon by society were also held in less respect as retainers. A man without special ability was also considered inferior by his master and his fellow retainers.
The status of retainers in the Later Han, and especially in the era of the Three Kingdoms, was markedly inferior; retainers were asked to engage in productive and menial labor and were treated more like slaves or servants.
The function of retainers
In pre-Qin times, the retainer seldom had definite obligations, and usually no routine work was assigned to him. He was expected to render occasional service according to his abilities when there was such a demand. When
Prince Tian Wen 田文 wanted to send someone to collect his debts, he inquired of his retainers whether one of them was versed in accounting and competent for his job. Sometimes the mission was difficult or even dangerous. A retainer was expected to do what the master asked of him and even risk his life for him. Hundreds of retainers were ready to give up their lives to follow
Prince Wei Wuji 魏無忌.
In Han times, retainers served in various capacities. They were intelligent men who served as personal advisors to high officials. Others were engaged in physical and menial work. Some retainers served as bodyguards. It was not uncommon to ask a retainer to assassinate an enemy. Under unusual conditions retainers were even asked to engage in robbery and other unlawful activities. As a rule, retainers were expected to share the suffering of their master and offer help in times of emergency or danger. Retainers also had obligations to defend the family of their master when it was attacked by bandits or enemies. The military services of retainers obviously were a help in seeking military and political power.
Retainers were usually not asked to perform domestic or productive work in the pre-Qin through early Han periods, but from the end of the early Han the retainers participated in production, particularly in the cultivation of land, and this tendency was more dominant at the end of
Later Han and
Three Kingdoms
The Three Kingdoms () from 220 to 280 AD was the tripartite division of China among the dynastic states of Cao Wei, Shu Han, and Eastern Wu. The Three Kingdoms period was preceded by the Eastern Han dynasty and was followed by the West ...
(220-280 CE) periods. During this time, retainers were treated in the same manner as slaves, and slaves and retainers were expected to perform the same kind of menial work.
Famous retainers in history
Sun Bin 孫臏, the famous retainer in the residence of
Tian Ji
Tian Ji (), courtesy name Qi (齐), was a military general of the Qi state during the early Warring States period (4th century BC) of Chinese history. Tian Ji met Sun Bin and recommended him to King Wei of Qi as a military strategist. Tian Ji co ...
田忌 in the Warring States period. Once, King Wei of Qi invited
Tian Ji
Tian Ji (), courtesy name Qi (齐), was a military general of the Qi state during the early Warring States period (4th century BC) of Chinese history. Tian Ji met Sun Bin and recommended him to King Wei of Qi as a military strategist. Tian Ji co ...
to a horse racing competition. Sun Bin suggested a strategy to Tian Ji to utilize his horses to the best advantage, and Tian won two out of three rounds in the race. The king was impressed with Tian's victory. Tian admitted that he won with the help of Sun Bin, and recommended Sun's talents to the king. King Wei wanted to appoint Sun Bin as the commander of the Qi armies. Sun declined, as his handicap prevented him from riding horseback, and would have a negative effect on the morale of soldiers. Sun was then appointed chief military advisor instead and served as
Tian Ji
Tian Ji (), courtesy name Qi (齐), was a military general of the Qi state during the early Warring States period (4th century BC) of Chinese history. Tian Ji met Sun Bin and recommended him to King Wei of Qi as a military strategist. Tian Ji co ...
's deputy.
[Shiji: Chapter 65, Sun Bin, as of 24 Jun 2015]
Literature
*Editorial Committee of Encyclopedia of China中国大百科全书编委会(1986): Zhongguo Dabaike Quanshu中国大百科全书Encyclopedia of China. Vol. History. Beijing and Shanghai: Zhongguo Dabaike Quanshu Chubanshe 中国大百科全书出版社. p. 50.
*Ch'ü T'ung-tsu (1972): Han Social Structure. Seattle: University of Washington Press. pp. 127–145.
*Scott Cook (2010): "'San De' and Warring States Views on Heavenly Retribution." Journal of Chinese Philosophy, no.37 (2010), pp. 101–123.
*Bao Jiashu 鲍家树 (2010): "Xian Qin 'menke' jiqi jingshen jizhi tanjiu" 先秦"门客"及其精神基质研究
Study of Retainers in the Pre-Qin Period and Their Spiritual Basis Journal of Hainan Normal University 海南师范大学报. No.5 2010. pp. 139.-144. .
*Shiji 史記
ecords of the Court Archivist(by Sima Qian 司馬遷
a. 145-86 BCEet al.), Baina edition, 1931.
*Sanguo Zhi三國志
ecords of the Three Kingdom(by Chen Shou 陳壽
a. 233-297 BCEet al.), Baina edition. 1931.
*Hanshu漢書 (by Ban Gu 班固
2-92 BCEet al.), Baina edition, 1931.
*Hou Hanshu 後漢書 (by Fan Ye范曄
a. 398-445 BCEet al.), Baina edition, 1931.
See also
*
Four Lords of the Warring States
*
Feudalism in China
''Fēngjiàn'' ( zh, c=封建, l=enfeoffment and establishment) was a political ideology and governance system in ancient China, whose social structure formed a decentralized system of confederation-like government based on the ruling class consis ...
*
Spring and Autumn period
The Spring and Autumn period was a period in Chinese history from approximately 770 to 476 BC (or according to some authorities until 403 BC) which corresponds roughly to the first half of the Eastern Zhou period. The period's name derives fr ...
*
Warring States period
The Warring States period () was an era in History of China#Ancient China, ancient Chinese history characterized by warfare, as well as bureaucratic and military reforms and consolidation. It followed the Spring and Autumn period and concluded ...
References
{{Reflist, 24em
Feudalism in China
History of China
Social class in China