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Rashtrakuta ( IAST: ') (r. 753-982 CE) was a royal Indian
dynasty A dynasty is a sequence of rulers from the same family,''Oxford English Dictionary'', "dynasty, ''n''." Oxford University Press (Oxford), 1897. usually in the context of a monarchical system, but sometimes also appearing in republics. A ...
ruling large parts of the
Indian subcontinent The Indian subcontinent is a physiographical region in Southern Asia. It is situated on the Indian Plate, projecting southwards into the Indian Ocean from the Himalayas. Geopolitically, it includes the countries of Bangladesh, Bhutan, In ...
between the sixth and 10th centuries. The earliest known Rashtrakuta inscription is a 7th-century copper plate grant detailing their rule from manapur a city in Central or West India. Other ruling Rashtrakuta clans from the same period mentioned in inscriptions were the kings of Achalapur and the rulers of Kannauj. Several controversies exist regarding the origin of these early Rashtrakutas, their native homeland and their language. The Elichpur clan was a feudatory of the
Badami Chalukyas The Chalukya dynasty () was a Classical Indian dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th centuries. During this period, they ruled as three related yet individual dynasties. The earliest dynast ...
, and during the rule of
Dantidurga Dantidurga (reigned 735–756 CE), also known as Dantivarman II was the founder of the Rashtrakuta Empire of Manyakheta. Reu (1933), p54 His capital was based in Gulbarga region of Karnataka. His successor was his uncle Krishna I who extended his ...
, it overthrew Chalukya
Kirtivarman II Kirtivarman II also known as Rahappa (reigned 746 – 753 CE) was the last ruler in the Badami Chalukya dynasty. He succeeded his father Vikramaditya II. His reign was continuously troubled by the growing power of the Rashtrakutas and Pandyas ...
and went on to build an empire with the Gulbarga region in modern
Karnataka Karnataka (; ISO 15919, ISO: , , also known as Karunāḍu) is a States and union territories of India, state in the southwestern region of India. It was Unification of Karnataka, formed on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reor ...
as its base. This clan came to be known as the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta, rising to power in
South India South India, also known as Dakshina Bharata or Peninsular India, consists of the peninsular southern part of India. It encompasses the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Telangana, as well as the union terr ...
in 753 AD. At the same time the Pala dynasty of
Bengal Bengal ( ; bn, বাংলা/বঙ্গ, translit=Bānglā/Bôngô, ) is a geopolitical, cultural and historical region in South Asia, specifically in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal, predom ...
and the Prathihara dynasty of
Malwa Malwa is a historical region of west-central India occupying a plateau of volcanic origin. Geologically, the Malwa Plateau generally refers to the volcanic upland north of the Vindhya Range. Politically and administratively, it is also sy ...
were gaining force in eastern and northwestern India respectively. An Arabic text, ''Silsilat al-Tawarikh'' (851), called the Rashtrakutas one of the four principal empires of the world.Reu (1933), p39 This period, between the eighth and the 10th centuries, saw a tripartite struggle for the resources of the rich Gangetic plains, each of these three empires annexing the seat of power at Kannauj for short periods of time. At their peak the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta ruled a vast empire stretching from the Ganges River and Yamuna River doab in the north to Kanyakumari in the south, a fruitful time of political expansion, architectural achievements and famous literary contributions. The early kings of this dynasty were influenced by
Hinduism Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...
and the later kings by
Jainism Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current time cycle bein ...
. During their rule, Jain mathematicians and scholars contributed important works in
Kannada Kannada (; ಕನ್ನಡ, ), originally romanised Canarese, is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 47 million native s ...
and
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural diffusion ...
.
Amoghavarsha I Amoghavarsha I (also known as Amoghavarsha Nrupathunga I) (r.814–878 CE) was the greatest emperor of the Rashtrakuta dynasty, and one of the most notable rulers of Ancient India. His reign of 64 years is one of the longest precisely dated mo ...
, the most famous king of this dynasty wrote ''
Kavirajamarga ''Kavirajamarga'' ( kn, ಕವಿರಾಜಮಾರ್ಗ) (850 C.E.) is the earliest available work on rhetoric, poetics and grammar in the Kannada language.Kamath (2001), p 90Narasimhacharya (1988), p 2 It was inspired by or written in part by ...
'', a landmark literary work in the
Kannada Kannada (; ಕನ್ನಡ, ), originally romanised Canarese, is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 47 million native s ...
language. Architecture reached a milestone in the Dravidian style, the finest example of which is seen in the Kailasanatha Temple at Ellora in modern Maharashtra. Other important contributions are the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at
Pattadakal Pattadakal, also called Paṭṭadakallu or Raktapura, is a complex of 7th and 8th century CE Hindu and Jain temples in northern Karnataka (India). Located on the west bank of the Malaprabha River in Bagalakote district, this UNESCO World ...
in modern
Karnataka Karnataka (; ISO 15919, ISO: , , also known as Karunāḍu) is a States and union territories of India, state in the southwestern region of India. It was Unification of Karnataka, formed on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reor ...
, both of which are UNESCO World Heritage Sites.


History

The origin of the Rashtrakuta dynasty has been a controversial topic of Indian history. These issues pertain to the origin of the earliest ancestors of the Rashtrakutas during the time of Emperor Ashoka in the 2nd century BCE, Reu (1933), pp1–5 and the connection between the several Rashtrakuta dynasties that ruled small kingdoms in northern and central India and the Deccan between the 6th and 7th centuries. The relationship of these medieval Rashtrakutas to the most famous later dynasty, the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta (present-day Malkhed in the Kalaburagi district, Karnataka state), who ruled between the 8th and 10th centuries has also been debated.Altekar (1934), pp1–32Reu (1933), pp6–9, pp47–53 The sources for Rashtrakuta history include medieval inscriptions, ancient literature in the Pali language,Reu (1933), p1 contemporaneous literature in Sanskrit and
Kannada Kannada (; ಕನ್ನಡ, ), originally romanised Canarese, is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 47 million native s ...
and the notes of the Arab travellers.Kamath (2001), p72 Theories about the dynastic lineage ('' Surya Vamsa''—Solar line and '' Chandra Vamsa''—Lunar line), the native region and the ancestral home have been proposed, based on information gleaned from inscriptions, royal emblems, the ancient clan names such as "Rashtrika", epithets (''Ratta'', ''Rashtrakuta'', ''Lattalura Puravaradhiswara''), the names of princes and princesses of the dynasty, and clues from relics such as coins.Kamath (2001), p72–74Reu (1933), pp1–15 Scholars debate over which ethnic/linguistic groups can claim the early Rashtrakutas. Possibilities include the
Kannadiga The Kannada people or Kannadigaru IAST">nowiki/>IAST:_Kannadadavaru_or_Kannadigas_(English_term).html" ;"title="IAST.html" ;"title="nowiki/>IAST">nowiki/>IAST: Kannadadavaru or Kannadigas (English term)">IAST.html" ;"title="nowiki/>IAST">nowik ...
,A Kannada dynasty was created in Berar under the rule of Badami Chalukyas (Altekar 1934, p21–26)Kamath 2001, p72–3Singh (2008), p556:"The community of the land tillers or agriculturists was known as Vokkaligas. The importance given to the cultivation of land is amply demonstrated by the fact that numerous tanks were dug and irrigation facilities were provided at various places. Some of the Rashtrakuta inscriptions found in the Banavasi province have the depiction of a plow. It is viewed that the Rashtrakutas were originally prosperous cultivators who later dominated the political scene. Some of the inscriptions refer to them as "Kutumbinah" which is interpreted as cultivators."
Reddi Reddy (also transliterated as ''Raddi'', ''Reddi'', ''Reddiar'', ''Reddappa'', ''Reddy'') is a caste that originated in India, predominantly settled in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. They are classified as a forward caste. The origin of the ...
,A.C. Burnell in Pandit Reu (1933), p4 the
Maratha The Marathi people ( Marathi: मराठी लोक) or Marathis are an Indo-Aryan ethnolinguistic group who are indigenous to Maharashtra in western India. They natively speak Marathi, an Indo-Aryan language. Maharashtra was formed a ...
,C.V. Vaidya (1924), p171D.R.Bhandarkar in Reu, (1933), p1, p7 the tribes from the Punjab region,Hultzsch and Reu in Reu (1933), p2, p4 or other north western ethnic groups of India. J. F. Fleet in Reu (1933), p6 Scholars however concur that the rulers of the imperial dynasty in the 8th to 10th century made the
Kannada language Kannada (; ಕನ್ನಡ, ), originally romanised Canarese, is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 47 million native ...
as important as Sanskrit. Rashtrakuta inscriptions use both Kannada and Sanskrit (historians
Sheldon Pollock Sheldon I. Pollock (born 1948) is an American scholar of Sanskrit, the intellectual and literary history of India, and comparative intellectual history. He is the Arvind Raghunathan Professor of South Asian Studies at Columbia University. He was ...
and Jan Houben claim they are mostly in Kannada),Kamath (2001), p73Pollock 2006, p332Houben(1996), p215Altekar (1934), p411–3Dalby (1998), p300 and the rulers encouraged literature in both languages. The earliest existing Kannada literary writings are credited to their court poets and royalty.Sen (1999), pp380-381During the rule of the Rashtrakutas, literature in Kannada and Sanskrit flowered (Kamath 2001, pp 88–90)Even royalty of the empire took part in poetic and literary activities – Thapar (2003), p334Narasimhacharya (1988), pp17–18, p68 Though these Rashtrakutas were
Kannadiga The Kannada people or Kannadigaru IAST">nowiki/>IAST:_Kannadadavaru_or_Kannadigas_(English_term).html" ;"title="IAST.html" ;"title="nowiki/>IAST">nowiki/>IAST: Kannadadavaru or Kannadigas (English term)">IAST.html" ;"title="nowiki/>IAST">nowik ...
s,Altekar (1934), pp21–24Possibly Dravidian Kannada origin (Karmarkar 1947 p26)Masica (1991), p45-46Rashtrakutas are described as Kannadigas from Lattaluru who encouraged the Kannada language (Chopra, Ravindran, Subrahmanian 2003, p87) they were conversant in a northern Deccan language as well. The heart of the Rashtrakuta empire included nearly all of
Karnataka Karnataka (; ISO 15919, ISO: , , also known as Karunāḍu) is a States and union territories of India, state in the southwestern region of India. It was Unification of Karnataka, formed on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reor ...
, Maharashtra and parts of
Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh (, abbr. AP) is a state in the south-eastern coastal region of India. It is the seventh-largest state by area covering an area of and tenth-most populous state with 49,386,799 inhabitants. It is bordered by Telangana to the ...
, an area which the Rashtrakutas ruled for over two centuries. The Samangadh copper plate grant (753) confirms that the feudatory King
Dantidurga Dantidurga (reigned 735–756 CE), also known as Dantivarman II was the founder of the Rashtrakuta Empire of Manyakheta. Reu (1933), p54 His capital was based in Gulbarga region of Karnataka. His successor was his uncle Krishna I who extended his ...
, who probably ruled from Achalapura in Berar (modern Elichpur in Maharashtra), defeated the great Karnatic army (referring to the army of the
Badami Chalukyas The Chalukya dynasty () was a Classical Indian dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th centuries. During this period, they ruled as three related yet individual dynasties. The earliest dynast ...
) of Kirtivarman II of Badami in 753 and took control of the northern regions of the Chalukya empire.Reu (1933), p54From Rashtrakuta inscriptions call the Badami Chalukya army ''Karnatabala'' (power of ''Karnata'') (Kamath 2001, p57, p65)Altekar in Kamath (2001), p72 He then helped his father-in-law, Pallava King Nandivarman regain Kanchi from the Chalukyas and defeated the Gurjaras of
Malwa Malwa is a historical region of west-central India occupying a plateau of volcanic origin. Geologically, the Malwa Plateau generally refers to the volcanic upland north of the Vindhya Range. Politically and administratively, it is also sy ...
, and the rulers of
Kalinga Kalinga may refer to: Geography, linguistics and/or ethnology * Kalinga (historical region), a historical region of India ** Kalinga (Mahabharata), an apocryphal kingdom mentioned in classical Indian literature ** Kalinga script, an ancient writin ...
, Kosala and Srisailam.Sastri (1955), p141Thapar (2003), p333 Dantidurga's successor Krishna I brought major portions of present-day Karnataka and Konkan under his control.Sastri (1955), p143Sen (1999), p368 During the rule of Dhruva Dharavarsha who took control in 780, the kingdom expanded into an empire that encompassed all of the territory between the Kaveri River and Central India.Desai and Aiyar in Kamath (2001), p75Reu (1933), p62Sen (1999), p370 He led successful expeditions to Kannauj, the seat of northern Indian power where he defeated the Gurjara
Pratihara The Gurjara-Pratihara was a dynasty that ruled much of Northern India from the mid-8th to the 11th century. They ruled first at Ujjain and later at Kannauj. The Gurjara-Pratiharas were instrumental in containing Arab armies moving east of ...
s and the
Palas A ''palas'' () is a German term for the imposing or prestigious building of a medieval '' Pfalz'' or castle that contained the great hall. Such buildings appeared during the Romanesque period (11th to 13th century) and, according to Thompson ...
of Bengal, gaining him fame and vast booty but not more territory. He also brought the Eastern Chalukyas and Gangas of Talakad under his control.The Rashtrakutas interfered effectively in the politics of Kannauj (Thapar 2003), p333 According to Altekar and Sen, the Rashtrakutas became a pan-India power during his rule.From the Karda inscription, a '' digvijaya'' (Altekar in Kamath 2001, p75)


Expansion

The ascent of Dhruva Dharavarsha's third son,
Govinda III Govinda III (reign 793–814 CE) was a famous Rashtrakuta ruler who succeeded his illustrious father Dhruva Dharavarsha. He was militarily the most successful emperor of the dynasty with successful conquests-from Kanyakumari in the south to Kan ...
, to the throne heralded an era of success like never before.The ablest of the Rashtrakuta kings (Altekar in Kamath 2001, p77) There is uncertainty about the location of the early capital of the Rashtrakutas at this time.Modern Morkhandi ( Mayurkhandi in Bidar district (Kamath 2001, p76)modern Morkhand in Maharashtra (Reu 1933, p65)Sooloobunjun near Ellora (Couseris in Altekar 1934, p48). Perhaps Elichpur remained the capital until Amoghavarsha I built Manyakheta. From the Wani-Dmdori, Radhanpur and Kadba plates, Morkhand in Maharashtra was only a military encampment, from the Dhulia and Pimpen plates it seems Nasik was only a seat of a viceroy, and the Paithan plates of Govinda III indicate that neither Latur nor Paithan was the early capital.(Altekar, 1934, pp47–48) During his rule there was a three way conflict between the Rashtrakutas, the Palas and the Pratiharas for control over the Gangetic plains. Describing his victories over the Pratihara Emperor Nagabhatta II and the
Pala Pala may refer to: Places Chad *Pala, Chad, the capital of the region of Mayo-Kebbi Ouest Estonia *Pala, Kose Parish, village in Kose Parish, Harju County *Pala, Kuusalu Parish, village in Kuusalu Parish, Harju County * Pala, Järva County, vil ...
Emperor
Dharmapala A ''dharmapāla'' (, , ja, 達磨波羅, 護法善神, 護法神, 諸天善神, 諸天鬼神, 諸天善神諸大眷屬) is a type of wrathful god in Buddhism. The name means "'' dharma'' protector" in Sanskrit, and the ''dharmapālas'' are a ...
, the Sanjan inscription states the horses of Govinda III drank from the icy waters of the Himalayan streams and his war elephants tasted the sacred waters of the
Ganges The Ganges ( ) (in India: Ganga ( ); in Bangladesh: Padma ( )). "The Ganges Basin, known in India as the Ganga and in Bangladesh as the Padma, is an international river to which India, Bangladesh, Nepal and China are the riparian states." is ...
.Kamath 2001, MCC, p76From the Sanjan inscriptions, His military exploits have been compared to those of
Alexander the Great Alexander III of Macedon ( grc, Ἀλέξανδρος, Alexandros; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon. He succeeded his father Philip II to ...
and Arjuna of
Mahabharata The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; sa, महाभारतम्, ', ) is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India in Hinduism, the other being the '' Rāmāyaṇa''. It narrates the struggle between two groups of cousins in the K ...
.Keay (2000), p199 Having conquered Kannauj, he travelled south, took firm hold over Gujarat, Kosala ( Kaushal), Gangavadi, humbled the Pallavas of Kanchi, installed a ruler of his choice in
Vengi Vengi (or Venginadu) is a delta region spread over the Krishna and Godavari River, (also called Godavari and Krishna districts), the region is also known as Godavari Delta, that used to house world famous diamond mines in the Medieval period ...
and received two statues as an act of submission from the king of Ceylon (one statue of the king and another of his minister). The Cholas, the Pandyas and the Kongu Cheras of Karur all paid him tribute.From the Nesari records (Kamath 2001, p76)Reu (1933), p65Sastri (1955), p144Narayanan, M. G. S. (2013), p95, ''Perumāḷs of Kerala: Brahmin Oligarchy and Ritual Monarchy: Political and Social Conditions of Kerala Under the Cēra Perumāḷs of Makōtai (c. AD 800 – AD 1124).'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks As one historian puts it, the drums of the Deccan were heard from the Himalayan caves to the shores of the Malabar Coast. The Rashtrakutas empire now spread over the areas from Cape Comorin to Kannauj and from Banaras to Bharuch."The victorious march of his armies had literally embraced all the territory between the Himalayas and Cape Comorin" (Altekar in Kamath 2001, p77)Sen (1999), p371 The successor of Govinda III,
Amoghavarsha I Amoghavarsha I (also known as Amoghavarsha Nrupathunga I) (r.814–878 CE) was the greatest emperor of the Rashtrakuta dynasty, and one of the most notable rulers of Ancient India. His reign of 64 years is one of the longest precisely dated mo ...
made Manyakheta his capital and ruled a large empire. Manyakheta remained the Rashtrakutas' regal capital until the end of the empire.Which could put to shame even the capital of gods-From Karda plates (Altekar 1934, p47)A capital city built to excel that of Indra (Sastri, 1955, p4, p132, p146)Reu 1933, p71 He came to the throne in 814 but it was not until 821 that he had suppressed revolts from feudatories and ministers. Amoghavarsha I made peace with the
Western Ganga dynasty Western Ganga was an important ruling dynasty of ancient Karnataka in India which lasted from about 350 to 1000 CE. They are known as "Western Gangas" to distinguish them from the Eastern Gangas who in later centuries ruled over Kalinga (m ...
by giving them his two daughters in marriage, and then defeated the invading Eastern Chalukyas at Vingavalli and assumed the title ''Viranarayana''.from the Cambay and Sangli records. The Bagumra record claims that Amoghavarsha saved the "Ratta" kingdom which was drowned in an "ocean of Chalukyas" (Kamath 2001, p78)Sastri (1955), p145 His rule was not as militant as that of Govinda III as he preferred to maintain friendly relations with his neighbours, the Gangas, the Eastern Chalukyas and the Pallavas with whom he also cultivated marital ties. His era was an enriching one for the arts, literature and religion. Widely seen as the most famous of the Rashtrakuta Emperors,
Amoghavarsha I Amoghavarsha I (also known as Amoghavarsha Nrupathunga I) (r.814–878 CE) was the greatest emperor of the Rashtrakuta dynasty, and one of the most notable rulers of Ancient India. His reign of 64 years is one of the longest precisely dated mo ...
was an accomplished scholar in Kannada and Sanskrit.Narasimhacharya (1988), p1 His ''Kavirajamarga'' is considered an important landmark in Kannada poetics and ''Prashnottara Ratnamalika'' in Sanskrit is a writing of high merit and was later translated into the Tibetan language.Reu (1933), p38 Because of his religious temperament, his interest in the arts and literature and his peace-loving nature, he has been compared to the emperor Ashoka and called "Ashoka of the South".Panchamukhi in Kamath (2001), p80 During the rule of
Krishna II Krishna II (reigned 878–914 CE) was king of the Rashtrakuta empire. He throne after the demise of his father Amoghavarsha I Nrupatunga. His Kannada name was Kannara. Reu (1933), p75 His queen was a Haihaya princess of Chedi called Mahadevi ...
, the empire faced a revolt from the Eastern Chalukyas and its size decreased to the area including most of the Western Deccan and Gujarat.Sastri (1955), p161 Krishna II ended the independent status of the Gujarat branch and brought it under direct control from Manyakheta. Indra III recovered the dynasty's fortunes in central India by defeating the Paramara and then invaded the doab region of the
Ganges The Ganges ( ) (in India: Ganga ( ); in Bangladesh: Padma ( )). "The Ganges Basin, known in India as the Ganga and in Bangladesh as the Padma, is an international river to which India, Bangladesh, Nepal and China are the riparian states." is ...
and Jamuna rivers. He also defeated the dynasty's traditional enemies, the Pratiharas and the Palas, while maintaining his influence over
Vengi Vengi (or Venginadu) is a delta region spread over the Krishna and Godavari River, (also called Godavari and Krishna districts), the region is also known as Godavari Delta, that used to house world famous diamond mines in the Medieval period ...
.From the writings of Adikavi Pampa (Kamath 2001, p81)Sen (1999), pp373-374 The effect of his victories in Kannauj lasted several years according to the 930 copper plate inscription of Emperor
Govinda IV Govinda IV (reigned 930–935 CE) was the younger brother of Amoghavarsha II. He became the Rashtrakuta emperor in 930 as described in the Kalasa record of Chikmagalur. He was a very unpopular ruler who indulged in licentious acts.Reu (1933), ...
.Kamath (2001), p82The Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta gained control over Kannauj for a brief period during the early 10th century (Thapar 2003, p333) After a succession of weak kings during whose reigns the empire lost control of territories in the north and east,
Krishna III Krishna III whose Kannada name was Kannara (r. 939 – 967 C.E.) was the last great warrior and able monarch of the Rashtrakuta dynasty of Manyakheta. He was a shrewd administrator and skillful military campaigner. He waged many wars to bring ...
the last great ruler consolidated the empire so that it stretched from the Narmada River to Kaveri River and included the northern Tamil country (Tondaimandalam) while levying tribute on the king of Ceylon.From the Siddalingamadam record of 944 – Krishna III captured Kanchi and Tanjore as well and had full control over northern Tamil regions (Aiyer in Kamath 2001, pp82–83)From the Tirukkalukkunram inscription – Kanchi and Tanjore were annexed by Krishna III. From the Deoli inscription – Krishna III had feudatories from Himalayas to Ceylon. From the Laksmeshwar inscription – Krishna III was an incarnation of death for the Chola Dynasty (Reu 1933, p83)Conqueror of Kanchi, (Thapar 2003, p334)Conqueror of Kanchi and Tanjore (Sastri 1955, p162)Sen 1999), pp374-375


Decline

In 972 A.D., during the rule of Khottiga Amoghavarsha, the
Paramara The Paramara dynasty ( IAST: Paramāra) was an Indian dynasty that ruled Malwa and surrounding areas in west-central India between 9th and 14th centuries. They belonged to the Parmara clan of the Rajputs. The dynasty was established in either ...
King Siyaka Harsha attacked the empire and plundered Manyakheta, the capital of the Rashtrakutas. This seriously undermined the reputation of the Rastrakuta Empire and consequently led to its downfall. The final decline was sudden as Tailapa II, a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta ruling from Tardavadi province in modern Bijapur district, declared himself independent by taking advantage of this defeat.The province of Tardavadi in the very heart of the Rashtrakuta empire was given to Tailapa II as a ''fief'' (provincial grant) by Rashtrakuta
Krishna III Krishna III whose Kannada name was Kannara (r. 939 – 967 C.E.) was the last great warrior and able monarch of the Rashtrakuta dynasty of Manyakheta. He was a shrewd administrator and skillful military campaigner. He waged many wars to bring ...
for services rendered in war (Sastri 1955, p162)
Kamath (2001), p101 Indra IV, the last emperor, committed
Sallekhana ''Sallekhana'' (IAST: ), also known as ''samlehna'', ''santhara'', ''samadhi-marana'' or ''sanyasana-marana'', is a supplementary vow to the ethical code of conduct of Jainism. It is the religious practice of voluntarily fasting to death by ...
(fasting unto death practised by Jain monks) at Shravanabelagola. With the fall of the Rashtrakutas, their feudatories and related clans in the Deccan and northern India declared independence. The Western Chalukyas annexed Manyakheta and made it their capital until 1015 and built an impressive empire in the Rashtrakuta heartland during the 11th century. The focus of dominance shifted to the Krishna River – Godavari River doab called
Vengi Vengi (or Venginadu) is a delta region spread over the Krishna and Godavari River, (also called Godavari and Krishna districts), the region is also known as Godavari Delta, that used to house world famous diamond mines in the Medieval period ...
. The former feudatories of the Rashtrakutas in western Deccan were brought under control of the Chalukyas, and the hitherto-suppressed Cholas of Tanjore became their arch enemies in the south.Kamath (2001), pp100–103 In conclusion, the rise of Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta had a great impact on India, even on India's north. Sulaiman (851),
Al-Masudi Al-Mas'udi ( ar, أَبُو ٱلْحَسَن عَلِيّ ٱبْن ٱلْحُسَيْن ٱبْن عَلِيّ ٱلْمَسْعُودِيّ, '; –956) was an Arab historian, geographer and traveler. He is sometimes referred to as the " Herodotu ...
(944) and Ibn Khurdadba (912) wrote that their empire was the largest in contemporary India and Sulaiman further called it one among the four great contemporary empires of the world.Reu (1933), p39–41Keay (2000), p200Kamath (2001), p94 According to the travelogues of the Arabs Al Masudi and Ibn Khordidbih of the 10th century, "most of the kings of Hindustan turned their faces towards the Rashtrakuta king while they were praying, and they prostrated themselves before his ambassadors. The Rashtrakuta king was known as the "King of kings" (''Rajadhiraja'') who possessed the mightiest of armies and whose domains extended from Konkan to Sind."
Burjor Avari Burjor Avari (1938-2019) was a teacher of South Asian history and educationist of multicultural education at the Manchester Metropolitan University. He received the honour of MBE in recognition of his work in multicultural education. Life and ...
(2007), ''India: The Ancient Past:'' A History of the Indian Sub-Continent from c. 7000 BC to AD 1200'', pp.207–208, Routledge, New York, ''
Some historians have called these times an "Age of Imperial Kannauj". Since the Rashtrakutas successfully captured Kannauj, levied tribute on its rulers and presented themselves as masters of North India, the era could also be called the "Age of Imperial Karnataka". During their political expansion into central and northern India in the 8th to the 10th centuries, the Rashtrakutas or their relatives created several kingdoms that either ruled during the reign of the parent empire or continued to rule for centuries after its fall or came to power much later. Well known among these were the Rashtrakutas of
Gujarat Gujarat (, ) is a state along the western coast of India. Its coastline of about is the longest in the country, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula. Gujarat is the fifth-largest Indian state by area, covering some ; and the ninth ...
(757–888),Reu (1933), p93 the Rattas of Saundatti (875–1230) in modern Karnataka,Reu (1933), p100 the Gahadavalas of Kannauj (1068–1223),Reu (1933), p113 the Rashtrakutas of
Rajasthan Rajasthan (; lit. 'Land of Kings') is a state in northern India. It covers or 10.4 per cent of India's total geographical area. It is the largest Indian state by area and the seventh largest by population. It is on India's northwestern ...
(known as Rajputana) and ruling from Hastikundi or Hathundi (893–996),Reu (1933), p110 Dahal (near
Jabalpur Jabalpur is a city situated on the banks of Narmada River in the state of Madhya Pradesh, India. According to the 2011 census, it is the third-largest urban agglomeration in Madhya Pradesh and the country's 38th-largest urban agglomeration. ...
),Jain (2001), pp67–75 Rathores of Mandore (near Jodhpur), the Rathores of Dhanop,Reu (1933), p112 Rashtraudha dynasty of Mayuragiri in modern MaharashtraDe Bruyne (1968) and Rashtrakutas of Kannauj.Majumdar (1966), pp50–51 Rajadhiraja Chola's conquest of the island of Ceylon in the early 11th century CE led to the fall of four kings there. According to historian K. Pillay, one of them, King Madavarajah of the Jaffna kingdom, was an usurper from the Rashtrakuta Dynasty.


Administration

Inscriptions and other literary records indicate the Rashtrakutas selected the crown prince based on heredity. The crown did not always pass on to the eldest son. Abilities were considered more important than age and chronology of birth, as exemplified by the crowning of Govinda III who was the third son of king Dhruva Dharavarsha. The most important position under the king was the Chief Minister (''Mahasandhivigrahi'') whose position came with five insignia commensurate with his position namely, a flag, a conch, a fan, a white umbrella, a large drum and five musical instruments called ''Panchamahashabdas''. Under him was the commander (''Dandanayaka''), the foreign minister (''Mahakshapataladhikrita'') and a prime minister (''Mahamatya'' or ''Purnamathya''), all of whom were usually associated with one of the feudatory kings and must have held a position in government equivalent to a premier.whose main responsibility was to draft and maintain inscriptions or ''Shasanas'' as would an archivist. (Altekar in Kamath (2001), p85 A ''Mahasamantha'' was a feudatory or higher ranking regal officer. All cabinet ministers were well versed in political science (''Rajneeti'') and possessed military training. There were cases where women supervised significant areas as when Revakanimaddi, daughter of
Amoghavarsha I Amoghavarsha I (also known as Amoghavarsha Nrupathunga I) (r.814–878 CE) was the greatest emperor of the Rashtrakuta dynasty, and one of the most notable rulers of Ancient India. His reign of 64 years is one of the longest precisely dated mo ...
, administered Edathore ''Vishaya''. The kingdom was divided into ''Mandala'' or ''Rashtras'' (provinces). A ''Rashtra'' was ruled by a Rashtrapathi who on occasion was the emperor himself. Amoghavarsha I's empire had sixteen ''Rashtras''. Under a ''Rashtra'' was a '' Vishaya'' (district) overseen by a Vishayapathi. Trusted ministers sometimes ruled more than a ''Rashtra''. For example, Bankesha, a commander of
Amoghavarsha I Amoghavarsha I (also known as Amoghavarsha Nrupathunga I) (r.814–878 CE) was the greatest emperor of the Rashtrakuta dynasty, and one of the most notable rulers of Ancient India. His reign of 64 years is one of the longest precisely dated mo ...
headed Banavasi-12000, Belvola-300, Puligere-300, Kunduru-500 and Kundarge-70, the suffix designating the number of villages in that territory. Below the ''Vishaya'' was the ''Nadu'' looked after by the Nadugowda or Nadugavunda; sometimes there were two such officials, one assuming the position through heredity and another appointed centrally. The lowest division was a ''Grama'' or village administered by a ''Gramapathi'' or ''Prabhu Gavunda''.Kamath (2001), p86 The Rashtrakuta army consisted of large contingents of infantry, horsemen, and elephants. A standing army was always ready for war in a cantonment (''Sthirabhuta Kataka'') in the regal capital of Manyakheta. Large armies were also maintained by the feudatory kings who were expected to contribute to the defense of the empire in case of war. Chieftains and all the officials also served as commanders whose postings were transferable if the need arose.From the notes of Al Masudi (Kamath 2001, p88) The Rashtrakutas issued coins (minted in an ''Akkashale'') such as ''Suvarna'', ''Drammas'' in silver and gold weighing 65  grains, ''Kalanju'' weighing 48 grains, ''Gadyanaka'' weighing 96 grains, ''Kasu'' weighing 15 grains, ''Manjati'' with 2.5 grains and ''Akkam'' of 1.25 grain.Kamath (2001), p88


Economy

The Rashtrakuta economy was sustained by its natural and agricultural produce, its manufacturing revenues and moneys gained from its conquests. Cotton was the chief crop of the regions of southern Gujarat, Khandesh and Berar. Minnagar, Gujarat, Ujjain, Paithan and Tagara were important centres of textile industry. Muslin cloth were manufactured in Paithan and
Warangal Warangal () is a city in the Indian state of Telangana and the district headquarters of Warangal district. It is the second largest city in Telangana with a population of 704,570 per 2011 Census of India, and spreading over an . Warangal ser ...
. The cotton yarn and cloth was exported from Bharoch. White
calicos Calico (; in British usage since 1505) is a heavy plain weave, plain-woven textile made from unbleached, and often not fully processed, cotton. It may also contain unseparated husk parts. The fabric is far coarser than muslin, but less coarse an ...
were manufactured in Burhanpur and Berar and exported to Persia, Byzantines, Khazaria, Arabia and
Egypt Egypt ( ar, مصر , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a List of transcontinental countries, transcontinental country spanning the North Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via a land bridg ...
.Altekar (1934), p356 The Konkan region, ruled by the feudatory Silharas, produced large quantities of betel leaves, coconut and rice while the lush forests of Mysore, ruled by the feudatory Gangas, produced such woods as sandal, timber, teak and ebony. Incense and perfumes were exported from the ports of Thana and Saimur. The Deccan was rich in minerals, though its soil was not as fertile as that of the Gangetic plains. The copper mines of
Cudappah Kadapa district (officially: YSR district; formerly: Cuddapah district) is one of the twenty six districts in the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. On 19 August 2005 nomenclature of “Cuddapah” has been changed as “Kadapa” by the Governm ...
, Bellary, Chanda, Buldhana, Narsingpur, Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and Dharwar were an important source of income and played an important role in the economy.Altekar (1934), p355 Diamonds were mined in Cudappah, Bellary, Kurnool and Golconda; the capital Manyakheta and Devagiri were important diamond and jewellery trading centres. The leather industry and tanning flourished in Gujarat and some regions of northern Maharashtra.
Mysore Mysore (), officially Mysuru (), is a city in the southern part of the state of Karnataka, India. Mysore city is geographically located between 12° 18′ 26″ north latitude and 76° 38′ 59″ east longitude. It is located at an altitude o ...
with its vast elephant herds was important for the ivory industry.From notes of Periplus, Al Idrisi and Alberuni (Altekar 1934, p357) The Rashtrakuta empire controlled most of the western sea board of the subcontinent which facilitated its maritime trade.Altekar (1934), p354 The Gujarat branch of the empire earned a significant income from the port of Bharoch, one of the most prominent ports in the world at that time.Altekar (1934), p358 The empire's chief exports were cotton yarn, cotton cloth, muslins, hides, mats, indigo, incense, perfumes,
betel nut The betel (''Piper betle'') is a vine of the family Piperaceae, which includes pepper and kava. The betel plant is native to Southeast Asia. It is an evergreen, dioecious perennial, with glossy heart-shaped leaves and white catkins. Betel pla ...
s, coconuts, sandal, teak, timber, sesame oil and ivory. Its major imports were pearls, gold, dates from Arabia, slaves, Italian wines, tin, lead, topaz, storax, sweet clover, flint glass,
antimony Antimony is a chemical element with the symbol Sb (from la, stibium) and atomic number 51. A lustrous gray metalloid, it is found in nature mainly as the sulfide mineral stibnite (Sb2S3). Antimony compounds have been known since ancient ti ...
, gold and silver coins, singing boys and girls (for the entertainment of the royalty) from other lands. Trading in horses was an important and profitable business, monopolised by the Arabs and some local merchants.Altekar (1934), p358–359 The Rashtrakuta government levied a shipping tax of one golden ''Gadyanaka'' on all foreign vessels embarking to any other ports and a fee of one silver ''Ctharna'' ( a coin) on vessels travelling locally. Artists and craftsman operated as corporations (guilds) rather than as individual business. Inscriptions mention guilds of weavers, oilmen, artisans, basket and mat makers and fruit sellers. A Saundatti inscription refers to an assemblage of all the people of a district headed by the guilds of the region.Altekar (1934), p368 Some guilds were considered superior to others, just as some corporations were, and received royal charters determining their powers and privileges. Inscriptions suggest these guilds had their own militia to protect goods in transit and, like village assemblies, they operated banks that lent money to traders and businesses.Altekar (1934), p370–371 The government's income came from five principal sources: regular taxes, occasional taxes, fines, income taxes, miscellaneous taxes and tributes from feudatories.Altekar (1934), p223 An emergency tax was imposed occasionally and were applicable when the kingdom was under duress, such as when it faced natural calamities, or was preparing for war or overcoming war's ravages. Income tax included taxes on crown land, wasteland, specific types of trees considered valuable to the economy, mines, salt, treasures unearthed by prospectors.Altekar (1934), p213 Additionally, customary presents were given to the king or royal officers on such festive occasions as marriage or the birth of a son.From the Davangere inscription of Santivarma of Banavasi-12000 province (Altekar 1934, p234 The king determined the tax levels based on need and circumstances in the kingdom while ensuring that an undue burden was not placed on the peasants.From the writings of Chandesvara (Altekar 1934, p216) The land owner or tenant paid a variety of taxes, including land taxes, produce taxes and payment of the overhead for maintenance of the Gavunda (village head). Land taxes were varied, based on type of land, its produce and situation and ranged from 8% to 16%. A Banavasi inscription of 941 mentions reassessment of land tax due to the drying up of an old irrigation canal in the region. The land tax may have been as high as 20% to pay for expenses of a military frequently at war.From the notes of Al Idrisi (Altekar (1934), p223 In most of the kingdom, land taxes were paid in goods and services and rarely was cash accepted.From the Begumra plates of Krishna II (Altekar 1934, p227 A portion of all taxes earned by the government (usually 15%) was returned to the villages for maintenance.Altekar (1934), p222 Taxes were levied on artisans such as potters, sheep herders, weavers, oilmen, shopkeepers, stall owners, brewers and gardeners. Taxes on perishable items such as fish, meat, honey, medicine, fruits and essentials like fuel was as high as 16%.Altekar (1934), p230 Taxes on salt and minerals were mandatory although the empire did not claim sole ownership of mines, implying that private mineral prospecting and the quarrying business may have been active.Altekar (1934), p242 The state claimed all such properties whose deceased legal owner had no immediate family to make an inheritance claim.From the writings of Somadeva (Altekar 1934, p244) Other miscellaneous taxes included ferry and house taxes. Only Brahmins and their temple institutions were taxed at a lower rate.From the Hebbal inscriptions and Torkhede inscriptions of Govinda III (Altekar 1934, p232


Culture


Religion

The Rashtrakuta kings supported the popular religions of the day in the traditional spirit of religious tolerance."Wide and sympathetic tolerance" in general characterised the Rashtrakuta rule (Altekar in Kamath 2001, p92) Scholars have offered various arguments regarding which specific religion the Rashtrakutas favoured, basing their evidence on inscriptions, coins and contemporary literature. Some claim the Rashtrakutas were inclined towards
Jainism Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current time cycle bein ...
since many of the scholars who flourished in their courts and wrote in
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural diffusion ...
,
Kannada Kannada (; ಕನ್ನಡ, ), originally romanised Canarese, is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 47 million native s ...
and a few in Apabhramsha and Prakrit were Jains.Kamath (2001), p92 The Rashtrakutas built well-known Jain temples at locations such as Lokapura in
Bagalkot district Bagalakote district(), is an administrative district in the Indian state of Karnataka. The district headquarters is located in the town of Bagalakote. The district is located in northern Karnataka and borders Belgaum, Gadag, Koppal, Raichur an ...
and their loyal feudatory, the
Western Ganga Dynasty Western Ganga was an important ruling dynasty of ancient Karnataka in India which lasted from about 350 to 1000 CE. They are known as "Western Gangas" to distinguish them from the Eastern Gangas who in later centuries ruled over Kalinga (m ...
, built Jain monuments at Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli. Scholars have suggested that Jainism was a principal religion at the very heart of the empire, modern Karnataka, accounting for more than 30% of the population and dominating the culture of the region.Altekar in Kamath (2001), p92 King Amoghavarsha I was a disciple of the Jain
acharya In Indian religions and society, an ''acharya'' ( Sanskrit: आचार्य, IAST: ; Pali: ''ācariya'') is a preceptor and expert instructor in matters such as religion, or any other subject. An acharya is a highly learned person with a ...
Jinasena and wrote in his religious writing, ''Prashnottara Ratnamalika'', "having bowed to Varaddhamana ( Mahavira), I write Prashnottara Ratnamalika". The mathematician Mahaviracharya wrote in his ''Ganita Sarasangraha'', "The subjects under Amoghavarsha are happy and the land yields plenty of grain. May the kingdom of King Nripatunga Amoghavarsha, follower of Jainism ever increase far and wide." Amoghavarsha may have taken up Jainism in his old age.Reu (1933), p36The Vaishnava Rashtrakutas patronised Jainism (Kamath 2001, p92) However, the Rashtrakuta kings also patronized
Hinduism Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...
's followers of the
Shaiva Shaivism (; sa, शैवसम्प्रदायः, Śaivasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the Supreme Being. One of the largest Hindu denominations, it incorporates many sub-traditions rangi ...
, Vaishnava and
Shakta Shaktism ( sa, शाक्त, , ) is one of several major Hindu denominations, wherein the metaphysical reality is considered metaphorically a woman and Shakti ( Mahadevi) is regarded as the supreme godhead. It includes many goddesses, all ...
faiths. Almost all of their inscriptions begin with an invocation to god
Vishnu Vishnu ( ; , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism. Vishnu is known as "The Preserver" withi ...
or god
Shiva Shiva (; sa, शिव, lit=The Auspicious One, Śiva ), also known as Mahadeva (; Help:IPA/Sanskrit, ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐ, or Hara, is one of the Hindu deities, principal deities of Hinduism. He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism, one o ...
. The Sanjan inscriptions tell of King Amoghavarsha I sacrificing a finger from his left hand at the Lakshmi temple at Kolhapur to avert a calamity in his kingdom. King Dantidurga performed the ''Hiranyagarbha'' (horse sacrifice) and the Sanjan and
Cambay Cambay, Kambay or Khambhat was a princely state in India during the British Raj. The City of Khambat (Cambay) in present-day Gujarat was its capital. The state was bounded in the north by the Kaira district and in the south by the Gulf of C ...
plates of King
Govinda IV Govinda IV (reigned 930–935 CE) was the younger brother of Amoghavarsha II. He became the Rashtrakuta emperor in 930 as described in the Kalasa record of Chikmagalur. He was a very unpopular ruler who indulged in licentious acts.Reu (1933), ...
mention
Brahmin Brahmin (; sa, ब्राह्मण, brāhmaṇa) is a varna as well as a caste within Hindu society. The Brahmins are designated as the priestly class as they serve as priests ( purohit, pandit, or pujari) and religious teachers ( ...
s performing such rituals as '' Rajasuya'', ''Vajapeya'' and ''Agnishtoma''.Kamath (2001), p91 An early copper plate grant of King Dantidurga (753) shows an image of god Shiva and the coins of his successor, King Krishna I (768), bear the legend ''Parama Maheshwara'' (another name for Shiva). The kings' titles such as ''Veeranarayana'' showed their Vaishnava leanings. Their flag had the sign of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers, perhaps copied from the Badami Chalukyas.Reu (1933), p34 The famous Kailasnatha temple at Ellora and other rock-cut caves attributed to them show that the Hinduism was flourishing. Their family deity was a goddess by name ''Latana'' (also known as ''Rashtrashyena'', ''Manasa'' ''Vindyavasini'') who took the form of a falcon to save the kingdom.Reu (1933, p34 They built temples with icons and ornamentation that satisfied the needs of different faiths. The temple at Salotgi was meant for followers of Shiva and Vishnu and the temple at Kargudri was meant for worshipers of Shiva, Vishnu and Bhaskara (
Surya Surya (; sa, सूर्य, ) is the sun as well as the solar deity in Hinduism. He is traditionally one of the major five deities in the Smarta tradition, all of whom are considered as equivalent deities in the Panchayatana puja and a ...
, the sun god). In short, the Rashtrakuta rule was tolerant to multiple popular religions,
Jainism Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current time cycle bein ...
, Vaishnavaism and Shaivism.
Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...
too found support and was popular in places such as Dambal and
Balligavi Balligavi a town in Shikaripura taluk Shivamogga district of Karnataka state, India, is today known as Belagami or Balagame. Its ancient names are Baligrama, Dakshina Kedara, Valliggame and Valligrame. Dakshina Kedara means Kedarnath of the S ...
, although it had declined significantly by this time.The Rise and Decline of
Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...
in India, K.L. Hazara, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1995, pp288–294
The decline of Buddhism in South India began in the 8th century with the spread of
Adi Shankara Adi Shankara ("first Shankara," to distinguish him from other Shankaras)(8th cent. CE), also called Adi Shankaracharya ( sa, आदि शङ्कर, आदि शङ्कराचार्य, Ādi Śaṅkarācāryaḥ, lit=First Shanka ...
's
Advaita ''Advaita Vedanta'' (; sa, अद्वैत वेदान्त, ) is a Hindu sādhanā, a path of spiritual discipline and experience, and the oldest extant tradition of the orthodox Hindu school Vedānta. The term ''Advaita'' ( ...
philosophy.A 16th-century Buddhist work by Lama Taranatha speaks disparagingly of Shankaracharya as close parallels in some beliefs of Shankaracharya with Buddhist philosophy was not viewed favourably by Buddhist writers (Thapar 2003, pp 349–350, 397) Islamic contact with South India began as early as the 7th century, a result of trade between the Southern kingdoms and
Arab The Arabs (singular: Arab; singular ar, عَرَبِيٌّ, DIN 31635: , , plural ar, عَرَب, DIN 31635: , Arabic pronunciation: ), also known as the Arab people, are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in Western Asia, ...
lands.
Jumma Jumma may refer to: * Friday prayer of Muslims * Jumma people The Jumma people ( bn, জুম্ম জনগোষ্ঠী) is a term usually referred to the minority tribal group of people of the Chittagong Hill Tracts region of Bangladesh, ...
Masjids existed in the Rashtrakuta empire by the 10th centuryFrom the notes of 10th-century Arab writer Al-Ishtakhri (Sastri 1955, p396) and many Muslims lived and mosques flourished on the coasts, specifically in towns such as Kayalpattanam and
Nagore Nagore is a town in the Nagapattinam District, Tamil Nadu, India. It is located approximately 12 km North of Karaikal and 5 km South of Nagapattinam. Nearby towns are Karaikal, Tiruvarur, and Velankanni. It has a population of a ...
. Muslim settlers married local women; their children were known as Mappilas (''Moplahs'') and were actively involved in horse trading and manning shipping fleets.From the notes of Masudi (916) (Sastri 1955, p396)


Society

Chronicles mention more castes than the four commonly known castes in the Hindu social system, some as many as seven castes.From the notes of Magasthenesis and Strabo from Greece and Ibn Khurdadba and Al Idrisi from Arabia (Altekar 1934, p317) Al-Biruni, the famed 10th century Persian / central Asian
Indologist Indology, also known as South Asian studies, is the academic study of the history and cultures, languages, and literature of the Indian subcontinent, and as such is a subset of Asian studies. The term ''Indology'' (in German, ''Indologie'') i ...
mentions sixteen castes including the four basic castes of Brahmins,
Kshatriya Kshatriya ( hi, क्षत्रिय) (from Sanskrit ''kṣatra'', "rule, authority") is one of the four varna (social orders) of Hindu society, associated with warrior aristocracy. The Sanskrit term ''kṣatriyaḥ'' is used in the co ...
, Vaishya and Sudras.From the notes of Alberuni (Altekar 1934, p317) The ''Zakaya'' or ''Lahud'' caste consisted of communities specialising in dance and acrobatics.Altekar (1934), p318 People in the professions of sailing, hunting, weaving, cobblery, basket making and fishing belonged to specific castes or subcastes. The ''Antyajas'' caste provided many menial services to the wealthy. Brahmins enjoyed the highest status in Rashtrakuta society; only those Kshatriyas in the ''Sat-Kshatriya'' sub-caste (noble Kshatriyas) were higher in status.From the notes of Alberuni (Altekar 1934, p324)From the notes of Alberuni (Altekar 1934, pp330–331) The careers of Brahmins usually related to education, the judiciary, astrology, mathematics, poetry and philosophyFrom the notes of Alberuni, Altekar (1934) p325 or the occupation of hereditary administrative posts.From the notes of Abuzaid (Altekar 1934, p325) Also Brahmins increasingly practiced non-Brahminical professions (agriculture, trade in betel nuts and martial posts).From the notes of Alberuni (Altekar 1934, p326) Capital punishment, although widespread, was not given to the royal Kshatriya sub-castes or to Brahmins found guilty of heinous crimes (as the killing of a Brahmin in medieval Hindu India was itself considered a heinous crime). As an alternate punishment to enforce the law a Brahmin's right hand and left foot was severed, leaving that person disabled.Altekar (1934), p329 By the 9th century, kings from all the four castes had occupied the highest seat in the monarchical system in Hindu India.From the notes of Yuan Chwang, Altekar (1934), p331 Admitting Kshatriyas to Vedic schools along with Brahmins was customary, but the children of the Vaishya and Shudra castes were not allowed. Landownership by people of all castes is recorded in inscriptionsFrom the notes of Alberuni (Altekar 1934, p332, p334) Intercaste marriages in the higher castes were only between highly placed Kshatriya girls and Brahmin boys,From the notes of Ibn Khurdadba (Altekar 1934, p337) but was relatively frequent among other castes.From the notes of Alberuni (Altekar 1934, p337) Intercaste functions were rare and dining together between people of various castes was avoided.From the notes of Al Masudi and Al Idrisi (Altekar 1934, p339) Joint families were the norm but legal separations between brothers and even father and son have been recorded in inscriptions.From the Tarkhede inscription of Govinda III, (Altekar 1934, p339) Women and daughters had rights over property and land as there are inscriptions recording the sale of land by women.Altekar (1934), p341 The arranged marriage system followed a strict policy of early marriage for women. Among Brahmins, boys married at or below 16 years of age and the brides chosen for them were 12 or younger. This age policy was not strictly followed by other castes.From the notes of Alberuni (Altekar 1934, p342) Sati (a custom in which a dead man's widow would
immolate Immolation may refer to: *Death by burning *Self-immolation, the act of burning oneself *Immolation (band), a death metal band from Yonkers, New York *''The Immolation'', a 1977 novel by Goh Poh Seng *''Dance Dance Immolation'', an interactive per ...
herself on her husband's funeral pyre) was practiced but the few examples noted in inscriptions were mostly in the royal families.From the notes of Sulaiman and Alberuni (Altekar 1934, p343) The system of shaving the heads of widows was infrequent as epigraphs note that widows were allowed to grow their hair but decorating it was discouraged.Altekar (1934), p345 The remarriage of a widow was rare among the upper castes and more accepted among the lower castes.From the notes of Ibn Khurdadba (Altekar 1934, p346) In the general population men wore two simple pieces of cloth, a loose garment on top and a garment worn like a '' dhoti'' for the lower part of the body. Only kings could wear
turban A turban (from Persian دولبند‌, ''dulband''; via Middle French ''turbant'') is a type of headwear based on cloth winding. Featuring many variations, it is worn as customary headwear by people of various cultures. Communities with promin ...
s, a practice that spread to the masses much later.Altekar (1934), p349 Dancing was a popular entertainment and inscriptions speak of royal women being charmed by dancers, both male and female, in the king's palace. Devadasis (girls were "married" to a deity or temple) were often present in temples.Altekar (1934), p350 Other recreational activities included attending animal fights of the same or different species. The Atakur inscription ( hero stone, ''virgal'') was made for the favourite hound of the feudatory Western Ganga King Butuga II that died fighting a wild boar in a hunt.Altekar (1934), p351 There are records of game preserves for hunting by royalty. Astronomy and astrology were well developed as subjects of study, and there were many superstitious beliefs such as catching a snake alive proved a woman's chastity. Old persons suffering from incurable diseases preferred to end their lives by drowning in the sacred waters of a pilgrim site or by a ritual burning.From the notes of Ibn Kurdadba (Altekar 1934, p353)


Literature

Kannada Kannada (; ಕನ್ನಡ, ), originally romanised Canarese, is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 47 million native s ...
became more prominent as a literary language during the Rashtrakuta rule with its script and literature showing remarkable growth, dignity and productivity. This period effectively marked the end of the classical Prakrit and Sanskrit era. Court poets and royalty created eminent works in Kannada and Sanskrit that spanned such literary forms as prose, poetry, rhetoric, the Hindu epics and the life history of Jain
tirthankars In Jainism, a ''Tirthankara'' (Sanskrit: '; English: literally a 'ford-maker') is a saviour and spiritual teacher of the ''dharma'' (righteous path). The word ''tirthankara'' signifies the founder of a '' tirtha'', which is a fordable passag ...
. Bilingual writers such as
Asaga Asaga was a 9th-century Digambara Jain poet who wrote in Sanskrit and Kannada language. He is most known for his extant work in Sanskrit, the ''Vardhamana Charitra'' (Life of Vardhamana). This epic poem which runs into eighteen cantos was wr ...
gained fame,Warder A.K. (1988), p. 248 and noted scholars such as the Mahaviracharya wrote on pure mathematics in the court of King Amoghavarsha I.Kamath (2001), p89"Mathematical Achievements of Pre-modern Indian Mathematicians", Putta Swamy T.K., 2012, chapter=Mahavira, p.231, Elsevier Publications, London, ''
Kavirajamarga ''Kavirajamarga'' ( kn, ಕವಿರಾಜಮಾರ್ಗ) (850 C.E.) is the earliest available work on rhetoric, poetics and grammar in the Kannada language.Kamath (2001), p 90Narasimhacharya (1988), p 2 It was inspired by or written in part by ...
'' (850) by King
Amoghavarsha I Amoghavarsha I (also known as Amoghavarsha Nrupathunga I) (r.814–878 CE) was the greatest emperor of the Rashtrakuta dynasty, and one of the most notable rulers of Ancient India. His reign of 64 years is one of the longest precisely dated mo ...
is the earliest available book on rhetoric and poetics in Kannada,Kamath (2001), p90 though it is evident from this book that native styles of Kannada composition had already existed in previous centuries.The ''Bedande'' and ''Chattana'' type of composition (Narasimhacharya 1988, p12) ''Kavirajamarga'' is a guide to poets (''Kavishiksha'') that aims to standardize these various styles. The book refers to early Kannada prose and poetry writers such as
Durvinita Durvinita () is seen as the most successful ruler of the Western Ganga dynasty. Son of the previous ruler, Avinita, Durvinita's accession to the throne was disputed by his brother, who had gained the support of the Pallavas and Kadambas. Ther ...
, perhaps the 6th-century monarch of
Western Ganga Dynasty Western Ganga was an important ruling dynasty of ancient Karnataka in India which lasted from about 350 to 1000 CE. They are known as "Western Gangas" to distinguish them from the Eastern Gangas who in later centuries ruled over Kalinga (m ...
.It is said ''Kavirajamarga'' may have been co-authored by Amoghavarsha I and court poet Sri Vijaya (Sastri 1955, pp355–356)Other early writers mentioned in ''Kavirajamarga'' are Vimala, Udaya, Nagarjuna, Jayabhandu for Kannada prose and Kavisvara, Pandita, Chandra and Lokapala in
Kannada Kannada (; ಕನ್ನಡ, ), originally romanised Canarese, is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 47 million native s ...
poetry (Narasimhacharya 1988, p2)
Warder A.K. (1988), p240 The Jain writer Adikavi Pampa, widely regarded as one of the most influential
Kannada Kannada (; ಕನ್ನಡ, ), originally romanised Canarese, is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 47 million native s ...
writers, became famous for '' Adipurana'' (941). Written in champu (mixed prose-verse style) style, it is the life history of the first Jain ''tirthankara'' Rishabhadeva. Pampa's other notable work was '' Vikramarjuna Vijaya'' (941), the author's version of the Hindu epic,
Mahabharata The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; sa, महाभारतम्, ', ) is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India in Hinduism, the other being the '' Rāmāyaṇa''. It narrates the struggle between two groups of cousins in the K ...
, with Arjuna as the hero.Sastri (1955), p356 Also called ''Pampa Bharata'', it is a eulogy of the writer's patron, King
Chalukya The Chalukya dynasty () was a Classical Indian dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th centuries. During this period, they ruled as three related yet individual dynasties. The earliest dynast ...
Arikeseri of Vemulawada (a Rashtrakuta feudatory), comparing the king's virtues favorably to those of Arjuna. Pampa demonstrates such a command of classical Kannada that scholars over the centuries have written many interpretations of his work.L.S. Seshagiri Rao in Amaresh Datta (1988), p1180 Another notable Jain writer in Kannada was Sri Ponna, patronised by King Krishna III and famed for ''Shantipurana'', his account of the life of Shantinatha, the 16th Jain tirthankara. He earned the title ''Ubhaya Kavichakravathi'' (supreme poet in two languages) for his command over both Kannada and Sanskrit. His other writings in Kannada were ''Bhuvanaika-ramaabhyudaya'', ''Jinaksharamale'' and ''Gatapratyagata''.Narasimhacharya (1988, p18 Adikavi Pampa and Sri Ponna are called "gems of Kannada literature". Prose works in
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural diffusion ...
was prolific during this era as well. Important mathematical theories and axioms were postulated by Mahaviracharya, a native of Gulbarga, who belonged to the Karnataka mathematical tradition and was patronised by King Amoghavarsha I. His greatest contribution was ''Ganitasarasangraha'', a writing in 9 chapters. Somadevasuri of 950 wrote in the court of Arikesari II, a feudatory of Rashtrakuta
Krishna III Krishna III whose Kannada name was Kannara (r. 939 – 967 C.E.) was the last great warrior and able monarch of the Rashtrakuta dynasty of Manyakheta. He was a shrewd administrator and skillful military campaigner. He waged many wars to bring ...
in Vemulavada. He was the author of '' Yasastilaka champu'', ''Nitivakyamrita'' and other writings. The main aim of the ''champu'' writing was to propagate Jain tenets and ethics. The second writing reviews the subject matter of ''Arthashastra'' from the standpoint of Jain morals in a clear and pithy manner.Sastri (1955), p314 Ugraditya, a Jain ascetic from Hanasoge in the modern Mysore district wrote a medical treatise called ''Kalyanakaraka''. He delivered a discourse in the court of Amoghavarsha I encouraging abstinence from animal products and alcohol in medicine.S.K. Ramachandra Rao, (1985), Encyclopedia of Indian Medicine: Historical perspective, pp100-101, Popular Prakashan, Mumbai, Narasimhachar (1988), p11 Trivikrama was a noted scholar in the court of King Indra III. His classics were ''Nalachampu'' (915), the earliest in champu style in Sanskrit, ''Damayanti Katha'', ''Madalasachampu'' and Begumra plates. Legend has it that Goddess Saraswati helped him in his effort to compete with a rival in the king's court. Jinasena was the spiritual preceptor and
guru Guru ( sa, गुरु, IAST: ''guru;'' Pali'': garu'') is a Sanskrit term for a "mentor, guide, expert, or master" of certain knowledge or field. In pan- Indian traditions, a guru is more than a teacher: traditionally, the guru is a reverential ...
of
Amoghavarsha I Amoghavarsha I (also known as Amoghavarsha Nrupathunga I) (r.814–878 CE) was the greatest emperor of the Rashtrakuta dynasty, and one of the most notable rulers of Ancient India. His reign of 64 years is one of the longest precisely dated mo ...
. A theologian, his contributions are ''Dhavala'' and ''Jayadhavala'' (written with another theologian Virasena). These writings are named after their patron king who was also called Athishayadhavala. Other contributions from Jinasena were ''Adipurana,'' later completed by his disciple Gunabhadra, ''Harivamsha'' and ''Parshvabhyudaya''.


Architecture

The Rashtrakutas contributed much to the architectural heritage of the Deccan. Art historian Adam Hardy categorizes their building activity into three schools: Ellora, around Badami, Aihole and Pattadakal, and at Sirval near Gulbarga.Hardy (1995), p111 The Rashtrakuta contributions to art and architecture are reflected in the splendid rock-cut cave temples at Ellora and Elephanta, areas also occupied by Jain monks, located in present-day Maharashtra. The Ellora site was originally part of a complex of 34 Buddhist caves probably created in the first half of the 6th century whose structural details show Pandyan influence. Cave temples occupied by Hindus are from later periods. The Rashtrakutas renovated these Buddhist caves and re-dedicated the rock-cut shrines. Amoghavarsha I espoused Jainism and there are five Jain cave temples at Ellora ascribed to his period. The most extensive and sumptuous of the Rashtrakuta works at Ellora is their creation of the monolithic Kailasanath Temple, a splendid achievement confirming the "Balhara" status as "one among the four principal Kings of the world". The walls of the temple have marvellous sculptures from Hindu mythology including
Ravana Ravana (; , , ) is a rakshasa king of the island of Lanka, and the chief antagonist of the Hindu epic '' Ramayana'' and its adaptations. In the ''Ramayana'', Ravana is described to be the eldest son of sage Vishrava and rakshasi Kaikesi. He ...
,
Shiva Shiva (; sa, शिव, lit=The Auspicious One, Śiva ), also known as Mahadeva (; Help:IPA/Sanskrit, ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐ, or Hara, is one of the Hindu deities, principal deities of Hinduism. He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism, one o ...
and Parvathi while the ceilings have paintings. The Kailasanath Temple project was commissioned by King Krishna I after the Rashtrakuta rule had spread into South India from the Deccan. The architectural style used is ''Karnata Dravida'' according to Adam Hardy. It does not contain any of the ''Shikharas'' common to the ''Nagara'' style and was built on the same lines as the Virupaksha temple at
Pattadakal Pattadakal, also called Paṭṭadakallu or Raktapura, is a complex of 7th and 8th century CE Hindu and Jain temples in northern Karnataka (India). Located on the west bank of the Malaprabha River in Bagalakote district, this UNESCO World ...
in Karnataka.Hardy (1995), p327 According to art historian Vincent Smith, the achievement at the Kailasanath temple is considered an architectural consummation of the monolithic rock-cut temple and deserves to be considered one of the wonders of the world.Vincent Smith in According to art historian Percy Brown, as an accomplishment of art, the Kailasanath temple is considered an unrivalled work of rock architecture, a monument that has always excited and astonished travellers.Percy Brown and James Fergusson in While some scholars have claimed the architecture at Elephanta is attributable to the Kalachuri, others claim that it was built during the Rashtrakuta period.Kamath (2001), p93 Some of the sculptures such as ''Nataraja'' and ''Sadashiva'' excel in beauty and craftsmanship even that of the Ellora sculptures.Arthikaje in Famous sculptures at Elephanta include ''Ardhanarishvara'' and ''Maheshamurthy''. The latter, a three faced bust of Lord Shiva, is tall and considered one of the finest pieces of sculpture in India. It is said that, in the world of sculpture, few works of art depicting a divinity are as balanced.Grousset in In
Karnataka Karnataka (; ISO 15919, ISO: , , also known as Karunāḍu) is a States and union territories of India, state in the southwestern region of India. It was Unification of Karnataka, formed on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reor ...
their most famous temples are the ''Kashivishvanatha'' temple and the Jain Narayana temple at
Pattadakal Pattadakal, also called Paṭṭadakallu or Raktapura, is a complex of 7th and 8th century CE Hindu and Jain temples in northern Karnataka (India). Located on the west bank of the Malaprabha River in Bagalakote district, this UNESCO World ...
, a
UNESCO The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a List of specialized agencies of the United Nations, specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) aimed at promoting world peace and security through international coope ...
World Heritage site.Hardy (1995), p.341 Other well-known temples are the Parameshwara temple at Konnur, Brahmadeva temple at Savadi, the Settavva, Kontigudi II, Jadaragudi and Ambigeragudi temples at
Aihole Aihole (pronounced "Eye-hoḷé"), also referred to as Aivalli, Ahivolal or Aryapura, is a historic site of ancient and medieval era Buddhist, Hindu and Jain monuments in Karnataka, India that dates from the sixth century through the twelfth ...
, Mallikarjuna temple at Ron, Andhakeshwara temple at Huli ( Hooli), Someshwara temple at Sogal, Jain temples at Lokapura,
Navalinga temple The Navalinga temple is a cluster of Hindu temples built in the 9th century, during the reign of King Amoghavarsha I or his son Krishna II of the Rashtrakuta Dynasty. The temple is located in the town of Kukkanur (also called Kuknur), north of ...
at Kuknur, Kumaraswamy temple at Sandur, numerous temples at Shirival in Gulbarga,Hardy (1995), p344-345 and the '' Trikuteshwara'' temple at Gadag which was later expanded by Kalyani Chalukyas. Archeological study of these temples show some have the stellar (multigonal) plan later to be used profusely by the Hoysalas at Belur and
Halebidu Halebidu ( IAST: Haḷēbīḍ, literally "old capital, city, encampment" or "ruined city") is a town located in Hassan District, Karnataka, India. Historically known as Dorasamudra (also Dwarasamudra), Halebidu became the regal capital of th ...
.Sundara and Rajashekar, One of the richest traditions in Indian architecture took shape in the Deccan during this time which Adam Hardy calls ''Karnata dravida'' style as opposed to traditional Dravida style.Hardy (1995), p5 (introduction)


Language

With the ending of the Gupta Dynasty in northern India in the early 6th century, major changes began taking place in the Deccan south of the Vindyas and in the southern regions of India. These changes were not only political but also linguistic and cultural. The royal courts of peninsular India (outside of Tamilakam) interfaced between the increasing use of the local
Kannada language Kannada (; ಕನ್ನಡ, ), originally romanised Canarese, is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 47 million native ...
and the expanding Sanskritic culture. Inscriptions, including those that were bilingual, demonstrate the use of Kannada as the primary administrative language in conjunction with Sanskrit. Government archives used Kannada for recording pragmatic information relating to grants of land.Thapar (2002), pp393–4 The local language formed the ''desi'' (popular) literature while literature in Sanskrit was more ''marga'' (formal). Educational institutions and places of higher learning (''ghatikas'') taught in Sanskrit, the language of the learned Brahmins, while Kannada increasingly became the speech of personal expression of devotional closeness of a worshipper to a private deity. The patronage Kannada received from rich and literate Jains eventually led to its use in the
devotional movements Devotional movements refers to various forms of Hinduism in India that co-exist with differing doctrines and practices. The history of worship in India is one of hybridisation. In ancient times various regions each had their own local myths and f ...
of later centuries.Thapar (2002), p396 Contemporaneous literature and inscriptions show that Kannada was not only popular in the modern Karnataka region but had spread further north into present day southern Maharashtra and to the northern Deccan by the 8th century.Vaidya (1924), p170 Kavirajamarga, the work on poetics, refers to the entire region between the Kaveri River and the Godavari River as "
Kannada Kannada (; ಕನ್ನಡ, ), originally romanised Canarese, is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 47 million native s ...
country".Sastri (1955), p355Rice, E.P. (1921), p12Rice, B.L. (1897), p497 Higher education in Sanskrit included the subjects of Veda, ''Vyakarana'' (grammar), ''Jyotisha'' (astronomy and astrology), ''Sahitya'' (literature), ''Mimansa'' (Exegesis), ''Dharmashastra'' (law), ''Puranas'' (ritual), and ''Nyaya'' (logic). An examination of inscriptions from this period shows that the '' Kavya'' (classical) style of writing was popular. The awareness of the merits and defects in inscriptions by the archivists indicates that even they, though mediocre poets, had studied standard classical literature in Sanskrit.Altekar (1934), p404 An inscription in Kannada by King
Krishna III Krishna III whose Kannada name was Kannara (r. 939 – 967 C.E.) was the last great warrior and able monarch of the Rashtrakuta dynasty of Manyakheta. He was a shrewd administrator and skillful military campaigner. He waged many wars to bring ...
, written in a poetic Kanda metre, has been found as far away as
Jabalpur Jabalpur is a city situated on the banks of Narmada River in the state of Madhya Pradesh, India. According to the 2011 census, it is the third-largest urban agglomeration in Madhya Pradesh and the country's 38th-largest urban agglomeration. ...
in modern
Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh (, ; meaning 'central province') is a state in central India. Its capital is Bhopal, and the largest city is Indore, with Jabalpur, Ujjain, Gwalior, Sagar, and Rewa being the other major cities. Madhya Pradesh is the second ...
. Kavirajamarga, a work on poetics in Kannada by
Amoghavarsha I Amoghavarsha I (also known as Amoghavarsha Nrupathunga I) (r.814–878 CE) was the greatest emperor of the Rashtrakuta dynasty, and one of the most notable rulers of Ancient India. His reign of 64 years is one of the longest precisely dated mo ...
, shows that the study of poetry was popular in the Deccan during this time. Trivikrama's Sanskrit writing, ''Nalachampu'', is perhaps the earliest in the ''champu'' style from the Deccan.Altekar (1934), p408 Kailasa temple, Ellora" style="font-size:88%; line-height:130%; border-bottom:1px #aaa solid;" heights="210"> Ellora Caves, India, Kailash Temple, Majestic Interior.jpg, Interior and arcades Ellora Cave 16 si0308.jpg, Kailasa temple, is one of the largest rock-cut ancient Hindu temples located in Ellora. Indra Sabha Ellora Temple Maharashtra India.jpg, Shikhara of Indra Sabha at Ellora.


List of rulers


See also

* Gadag * Kalyani Chalukyas * Kuknur *
Pattadakal Pattadakal, also called Paṭṭadakallu or Raktapura, is a complex of 7th and 8th century CE Hindu and Jain temples in northern Karnataka (India). Located on the west bank of the Malaprabha River in Bagalakote district, this UNESCO World ...
* Prithvi-vallabha


Notes


References

Books * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Web * * *


External links


Archaeological Survey of India
{{Telangana Dynasties of India Empires and kingdoms of India Former countries in South Asia Hindu dynasties History of Marathwada 8th century in India 9th century in India 10th century in India Medieval Karnataka 8th-century establishments in India 753 establishments 10th-century disestablishments in India 982 disestablishments States and territories established in the 750s States and territories disestablished in the 980s