Classification
Dialects
Rukai is unique for being the only Formosan language without a focus system. Tanan Rukai is also the Formosan language with the largest consonant inventory, with 23 consonants and 4 vowels having length contrast. Tanan Rukai also makes an animate/inanimate instead of a personal/non-personal one as most other Formosan languages do. Mantauran is one of the most divergent dialects. Li (2001) classifies them as follows: *Rukai **''Mantauran'' (萬山 Wanshan, also 'oponoho): 250–300 speakers **(Main branch) ***Maga–Tona ****''Maga'' (馬加 Majia) ****''Tona'' (多納 Duona) ***Budai–Tanan (Rukai Proper) ****''Budai'' (霧台 Wutai) ****''Tanan'' (大南 Danan; also ''Taromak'')Geographic distribution
According to Zeitoun (2007:4), there are a total of 6 Rukai dialects spoken in 12 different villages. Together, Maga, Tona, and Mantauran are also known as the "Lower Three Villages." Rukai have also recently in Sandimen Township and southern Sanhe Village, Majia Township, where there are many Paiwan. Sanhe Village is also where the Budai Rukai originally lived in before they relocated to Wutai Township in the mid-1900s.Phonology
Most Rukai dialects have four vowels andGrammar
Morphology
Basic Mantauran Rukai syllables take on a basic structure, with words usually ranging from 2 to 4 syllables long (Zeitoun 2007). There are four morphological processes. #Affixation #Stem modification #Reduplication #Compounding The following reduplication patterns occur in Budai Rukai (''Austronesian Comparative Dictionary''). ;Reduplication of the noun stem *N + RED 'a great amount' *N(umeral or period) + RED 'lasting for a period of...' ;Reduplication of the verb stem *V + RED 'continuous, keep doing, do repeatedly' *V + RED 'future' *V (stative) + RED 'intensity, comparatively greater' In Budai Rukai, reduplication of a bound stem can also be used to create certain basic nouns and verbs, such as 'thunder,' 'mountain,' and 'to scrape' (''Austronesian Comparative Dictionary''). Based on an analysis of the Budai (Kucapungan) dialect, Rukai is said to be unusual among Formosan languages for having a dichotomous active-passive voice system, (Chen & Sung, 2005) which may include voices such agent, patient, locative, or instrumental focus. Stan Starosta considers this to be an indication that Rukai is the first offshoot of the Austronesian language family (Zeitoun, 2007). However, thisSyntax
Unlike most otherFunction words
Below are some Mantauran Rukai function words from Zeitoun (2007). *la – and *mani – thenWord classes
Zeitoun (2007) distinguishes eleven word classes in Mantauran Rukai:. #Nouns #Verbs #Pronouns #Demonstratives #Numerals #Adverbs #Phrasal elements #Clausal elements #Interclausal elements #Exclamations #InterjectionsVerbs
Below are some Mantauran Rukai verb affixes from Zeitoun (2007). *Dynamic verbs: ''o-''; very rarely ''om-'' and ''m-'' *Stative verbs: ''ma-'' *Negating prefix: ''ki-'' *Causative: ''pa-'' *''ʔini-Ca-'' "(one)self" *''mati-'' "well" *''k-in-a ... aə'' "... more" *''ʔako-'' "barely, just" *''ka-'' "in fact" *''mata ... aə'' "certainly"Pronouns
Below are Rukai pronouns from Zeitoun (1997). Note that Mantauran Rukai pronouns are usually bound.Affixes
Budai Rukai
The list of Budai Rukai affixes below is sourced from Chen (2006:199-203). Prefixes *a- 'become' *ana- 'if' *api- 'like', 'want' *i- 'at', 'in' *ki- 'to gather', 'to collect' *ki- 'Dative Focus' *ki- 'to dig *ku- 'to remove' *ku- 'Free Pronoun marker' *ku- 'Past marker' *la- 'Plural' *lu- 'Future' *ma- 'Stative Verb' *ma- 'reciprocal' *ma- 'dual (two people)' *mu- 'to remove' *mu- 'self-motion' *- 'ordinal' *nai- 'have done' *ŋi- 'to move in certain direction' *ŋi- '-self' *ŋu- 'to ride' *pa- 'causative' *paŋu- 'by' *sa- 'body parts' *sa- 'when' *si- 'verbal prefix' *si- 'to wear' *sini- 'from' *su- 'to clean' *su- 'belong' *ta- 'to feel' *taru- 'certain' *tu- 'to mark' *tua- 'to wash' *θi- 'to release' *u-/w- 'Agent Focus' Suffixes *-a 'imperative' *-a 'Accusative Case' *-ana 'still', 'yet' *-anə 'nominalize' *-ŋa 'completive' *-ŋa 'close to' Infixes * 'past tense; non-future' * 'realis' * 'Goal subject', 'Past time' Circumfixes *aanə 'future state' *aanə 'nominalizer' *kaanə 'real or genuine' *kalaanə 'season' *saanə 'instrument' *sanuanə 'left-over' *sanulə 'frequency' *taanə 'time', 'location' Compound (Multiple) Affixes *la-ma- 'plural marker' *ɭi-tara- 'have to', must' *sa-ka- 'household' *sa-ka-uanə ; the whole' *sa-ka-si-... l-anə the ... generation *ta-ra- for a period of time *ta-ra- be good at *t-in-uanə personal relationMantauran Rukai
The following list of Mantauran Rukai affixes is sourced from Zeitoun (2007). *a- 'when' *a- (action/state nominalization) *a- 'plural' *-a 'beyond (in time or space)' *-a 'irrealis' *-a 'imperative' *-ae (state nominalization) *aae; allomorph: ... -ae (objective nominalization; negative imperative) *amo- 'will' *-ane (meaning unknown; used on verbs to insult someone) *-a-nga 'imperative' (mild requests) *apaa- 'reciprocal causative' (dynamic verbs) *apano- 'like to, prone to, have a tendency to' *apa'a 'reciprocal causative' (stative verbs) *apa'ohi- 'split (causative form)' *-ci 'snivel' *dh- 'invisible' *i- 'at' *-i 'irrealis' *-ie (marking of the oblique case on personal and impersonal pronouns) *-ka 'predicative negation' *ka- 'in fact, indeed, actually' *kaae 'genuine, real, original' *kalaae 'temporal nominalization' *kapa ~ kama- 'continuously' *kapa ...-nga 'all, every' *ki- 'modal negation' *kiae 'whose' *kaae 'more and more' *la- 'plural' *la-ma'a- 'reciprocal' *-lo 'plural' (demonstrative pronouns) *m- (dynamic (finite and subjunctive) verbs; alternates with k-, p-, or Ø in its non-finite form) *ma- (stative (finite and subjunctive) verbs; alternates with ka- in its non-finite form) *male (forms 'tens') *ma-Ca- 'reciprocity' (dynamic (finite and subjunctive) verbs; alternates with pa-Ca; Ca refers to the reduplication of the first consonant) *maa- 'reciprocity' (dynamic (finite and subjunctive) verbs; alternates with paa) *maae (~ paae; maa- (dual reciprocal) + -e (meaning unknown)) * 'each/both' *maatalile/lo '(a number of) floors' *maka- 'finish' *makale/lo (~ pakale/lo) 'up to N-/for N- days/months/years' *maka'an- (attaches only to aleve 'below' and lrahalre 'above') * (~ 'all' *Mali- (~ pali) 'along' *ma'ohi (~ pa'ohi) 'split' *m-o- (~ o-) 'holds X's ritual (where X = household name)' (attaches to household names to form dynamic verbs) *m-o- (~ o-) 'toward' *mo- 'anti-causative' *m-ore (~ ore-) 'perform' *mota'a- (~ ota'a-) 'raise' *n- 'visible' *-na 'still' *naa- 'continuously' *-nae 'place where' *-nae 'time when' *-nga 'already' *-nga 'superlative' *ni- 'counterfactuality (irrealis)' *nia 'concessive' *o- 'dynamic / finite / realis / active' *oe 'dress well' (derives verbs from nouns) *o-ara- 'only' (attached to verbs) *o-ka'ale/lo (~ ko'ale/lo) 'a number of recipients' *om- (~ m- / ~ Ø) 'dynamic / finite / realis / active' *o-tali (~ tali- / ~ toli) 'wrap up, pack up' *o-tali (~ tali-) 'made of' *o-tara- (~ tara-) 'a number of months / years' *taro- (doublet form: tao-) 'group of persons in movement' *o-ta'i- (~ ta'i-) 'precede' *o-'ara- (~ 'ara-) 'early' *pa- 'causative' *pa- 'every N-times' * 'stick to, think about' *pa'aae '(what is) left' *pe- 'forbiddance (?)' *pi- 'local causative' *po- 'causative of movement' *po- 'bear, grow N' (attaches to nouns) *saka- 'external' *samori- 'keep on ...-ing' (attaches only to the root ''kane'' 'to eat') *sa'api- 'prone to, inclined to' *so- 'tribute' *ta- (subjective nominalization) *ta- 'inalienability' (kinship and color terms) * 'place where' *taae 'time when' *tan-ae (forms derived locative nominal) *taka- 'a number of persons' *tako- 'while' *tala- 'container' (?; found only with the root ''ove'eke'') *tali- 'belong to' *ta'a- 'with (a group of persons)' *ta'ale/lo 'measure with an extended arm' (bound numerals) *to- 'do, make, produce, build' * 'use ... for, by ...-ing' *to'a- 'use ... to, for' *'a- 'instrument/manner nominalizer' *'ae 'have a lot of' *'aa- 'turn into' *'aka- 'Nth' (ordinal prefix 'a- + stative marker ka- (non-finite form)) *'ako- (doublet form: 'akoae) 'speak (out)' *'ako- 'barely, a little' *'akole 'say a number of times' *'akonga 'more' *'ali- 'from (in time or space)' (< '' 'aliki'' '(come) from') *'ano- 'walk, ride, take' *'ano- 'unknown meaning' (only attaches to stative roots) *'ano-Ca- 'along/with a number of persons (in movement)' (attaches to bound numeral forms and certain other roots) *'anoae 'entirely, completely, cease, alleviate' *'aole/lo 'the Nth time' (ordinal prefix 'a- + 'ole/lo 'a number of times') *'apakale/lo 'the Nth day' (ordinal prefix 'a- + pakale/lo 'up to/for a number of days / months / years) *'api- 'like ... -ing' *'a-po- 'as a result of' *'apo- 'come out' *'asaae 'what's the use of' *'asi- (meaning unknown; found only once in the word 'work') *'i- 'passive' *'i- 'verbalizer' (from nouns; polysemous prefix). Semantic core of 'i-N is 'get, obtain-N', although it can also be glossed as 'get, harvest, gather, look after, bear, have for, kill, etc.' *'i- 'put on, wear' (derives verbs from nouns) *'ia-... ae 'because of, out of' *'ini- 'movement toward' *'ini- 'cross' *'ini- 'consume' *'ini-Ca- '(one)self' (reflexive) *'iniae 'pretend' *'ini(-ae) 'behave like, look like' (derived from '' 'inilrao'' 'resemble') *'ira- 'for' (derived from '' 'iraki'' '(do) for') *'o- 'take off' *'ole/lo 'a number of times' (attaches to bound numerals) *'ole/lo 'measure' (must be followed by certain words to indicate a measure with the hand, foot, ruler, etc.) *'o-tali 'unpack' The following list of Budai Rukai affixes is sourced from the ''Comparative Austronesian Dictionary'' (1995). ;Nominal affixes *kaanə + N 'something real or genuine *ko- + Pronoun 'nominative' * + N (numeral) 'ordinal' *sa-... anə + V 'instrument, tool' *sa- + N 'some body parts' *taanə + N 'location, time' *ta-ra + N 'agentive, a person specialised in...' ;Verbal affixes *-a- + V 'realis' *-a + V 'imperative' *ki- + N 'to gather, to collect, to harvest' *ki- + V 'dative-focus, involuntary action' *ko- + N 'to remove, to peel' *ko- + V 'intransitive, patient-focus' *ma- + V 'mutual, reciprocal' *maa- + V 'stative' *mo- + N 'to discharge, remove' *mo- + V '(to go) self-motion, non-causative' *ŋi- + V 'to act or to move in a certain direction or manner' *ŋo- + N 'to ride' *pa- + V 'causative' *si- + V (bound stem) 'verbal prefix' *si- + N 'to wear, to carry, to possess' *so- + N 'to spit, to clean, to give out' *to- + N 'to make, produce, bring forth' *θi + N 'to release' *w- + V 'agent-focus, verbal prefix'Notes
References
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