Background and historical context
Artists and professionals
In the Middle Ages, the concept of "architect" – as understood amongst the Romans – fell out of use, giving way to a social change. The duties of the former architect came to rest on the master builder. This was an artist who, in most cases, took part in the actual construction along with the team of workers which he had under his command. The master builder was the one who oversaw the edifice (as the ancient architect did), but at the same time could also be a craftsman, a sculptor, a carpenter or stonecutter. This person was usually educated in monasteries or groups of unionized masonic lodges. Many of these master builders were the designers of gorgeous portals or porticos, such as the one at theLa obra de iglesia de Burgos que há unas casas cerca de la dicha iglesia en que tienen todas las cosas que son menester para la dicha obra; e los libros de las cuentas é todas las otras herramientas con que labran los maestros en la dicha obra.
(The construction of the Burgos church that has some houses near the said church in which they have all the things that are necessary for said work; and the books of the accounts and all other tools with which the masters labour in the said work.)
Stonemasons
..''with about 50 other stonemasons who worked there regularly, under the caring direction of Don Wicarto'' (''con aproximadamente otros 50 canteros que allí trabajaban asiduamente, bajo la solícita dirección de don Wicarto'') ../blockquote>These masons and other workers were exempted from paying taxes. They were separated in two groups depending on their specialization. The first group those who were engaged in a special high-quality work (genuine sculpting artists) and who worked at their own pace, leaving their completed work at the site to be later placed on the building. The second group were permanent employees, who raised buildings stone upon stone and put in place those quality pieces or carved reliefs done by the first group at the right time. This way of working could lead to a time lag in the pieces being placed some time after being created, a lag in many cases which has become a big problem for historians in dating the building. There was also a group of unskilled labourers who worked wherever there was a need. In many cases these people offered their work or skill as an act of mercy because as Christians they were willing to collaborate on a great work dedicated to their God. In any case they received a remuneration that was either by the day or per piece. In documents many names appear on lists of daily wages so this act was not arbitrary but rather well regulated. Among the Cistercians they became known as ''cuadrillas de ponteadores'' (scoring crews), made up of laymen or monks who moved from one county to another, always under the direction of a professional monk, whose job it was to pave grounds, build roads, or build bridges.
Anonymity and artists' signatures
Most Romanesque works are anonymous in the sense of lacking a signature or proof of authorship. Even if the work is signed, specialists historians sometimes have difficulty distinguishing whether reference is made to the actual creator or the sponsor of the work. Sometimes however, the signature is followed or preceded by an explanation that clarifies whether it is one or the other person. Arnau Cadell made it clear on the Sant Cugat capital: ''This is the image of Arnau Cadell sculptor who built this cloister for posterity.'' Rodrigo Gustioz also wanted to be immortalized for his funding of an arch in the Santa Maria de Lebanza: Rodrigo Gustioz made this arc, a man from Valbuena, soldier, pray for him. This notice by another sponsor appears on a capital:
''El prior Pedro Caro hizo esta iglesia, casa, claustro y todo lo que aquí está fundado en el año 1185.''In other cases it is the systematic study of the sculpture along with the architecture that has allowed historians to draw conclusions. Thus it is known that in the Lleida Cathedral, Pere de Coma served as master builder from 1190-1220, but during that period there were also several clearly differentiated sculpture workshops. The same study conducted in the
Prior Pedro Caro made this church, house, cloister and everything here was founded in 1185.Santiago de Compostela Cathedral The Santiago de Compostela Archcathedral Basilica (Spanish and Galician: ) is part of the Metropolitan Archdiocese of Santiago de Compostela and is an integral component of the Santiago de Compostela World Heritage Site in Galicia, Spain. The c ...suggests Master Mateo as the promoter and director of successive workshops which has aspects performed by different hands but under one coherent direction.The fact that most Romanesque works have remained anonymous has developed the theory that the artist considered that he was not the right person to place his name on works dedicated to God. However, on one hand, the few civil works that remain are not signed either and on the other hand, such a view is countered by a long list that could be given of artists who sign their works themselves, among which are: *Raimundo de Monforte, which appears in 1129 documents as contracted to build the
Lugo Cathedral Saint Mary's Cathedral ( gl, Catedral de Santa María), better known as Lugo Cathedral, is a Roman Catholic church and basilica in Lugo, Galicia, north-western Spain. The cathedral was erected in the early 12th century in a Romanesque style, wi .... *Pedro Deustamben, appears on a funeral epitaph in San Isidoro de León as builder of the domes. *Raimundo Lambard or Lambardo, who worked from 1175 on the Urgell Cathedral. *Masters Bernardo el Viejo, Roberto and Esteban who worked on theSantiago de Compostela Cathedral The Santiago de Compostela Archcathedral Basilica (Spanish and Galician: ) is part of the Metropolitan Archdiocese of Santiago de Compostela and is an integral component of the Santiago de Compostela World Heritage Site in Galicia, Spain. The c .... *Master Pere de Coma, who worked in the late twelfth century on the Lleida Cathedral. *Master Micaelis, who worked on several churches and chapels in northernPalencia Palencia () is a city of Spain located in the autonomous community of Castile and León. It is the capital and most populated municipality of the province of Palencia. Located in the Northwest of the Iberian Peninsula, in the northern half o ..., and left his portrait while working on theportal Portal often refers to: * Portal (architecture), an opening in a wall of a building, gate or fortification, or the extremities (ends) of a tunnel Portal may also refer to: Arts and entertainment Gaming * ''Portal'' (series), two video games ...of inPalencia Palencia () is a city of Spain located in the autonomous community of Castile and León. It is the capital and most populated municipality of the province of Palencia. Located in the Northwest of the Iberian Peninsula, in the northern half o .... The list could be extended with many more names which appeared right on the stone itself by way of signature or on procurement documents, as proof that the intended construction was neither prohibited nor discouraged. What is difficult to distinguish in many cases is the trade of the person signing as they could either be architects, specialized stonemasons or sculptors of selected pieces. All of them were often called Master and all used his craft during the construction according to the wishes and the mandate of the promoters and patrons.
Developers and sponsors
In the Romanesque world both the promoter of the works as well as the patron and financier were the true stars of the architectural work or the work of art to be created. They are in charge and determine how the work should be done, what should be the characters or the saints in sculpture and reliefs, the geometric dimensions (which then will be the responsibility of the true professional to carry them out with mathematical rigor) and they encourage and exalt the project. The promoters were in charge of hiring and also calling the best artists and architects who worked with their momentum and enthusiasm. Especially in sculpture and painting, the artist was fully submitted to the will of the patrons and sponsors, without whose intervention the work would never be done. The Romanesque artist adapted to the will of these people giving the best work of his trade and complying with the satisfaction of a job well done without having any desire nor intending to acquire worldwide fame as he began to develop from the Renaissance. The pride of a job well done and the recognition of his peers and patron were the greatest of the awards and so sometimes this pride led them to put it very simply in one of his finished works. In Spain, kings and a minority of the nobility introduced the new Romanesque trends early on (which carried with it a Benedictine renewal and acceptance of the
Roman Liturgy The Roman Rite ( la, Ritus Romanus) is the primary Catholic particular churches and liturgical rites, liturgical rite of the Latin Church, the largest of the ''sui iuris'' particular churches that comprise the Catholic Church. It developed in the ...), while another part of the nobility and most of the bishops and monks still clung to the old ways and the Hispanic liturgy. However the Romanesque fully triumphed and this was mainly due to the patrons and promoters who carried out great works from which the new style was developed throughout the northern half of the Iberian Peninsula.
Abbot Oliba Oliba (; 971–1046) was the count of Berga and Ripoll (988–1002), and later abbot of the monasteries of Santa Maria de Ripoll and Sant Miquel de Cuixà (1008–1046) and the bishop of Vic (1018–1046). He is considered one of ...was a patron, sponsor and huge promoter of Romanesque art in Catalonia from an early date. In 1008 he was appointed abbot of the monasteries inRipoll Ripoll () is the capital of the ''comarca'' of Ripollès, in the province of Girona, Catalonia, Spain. It is located on confluence of the Ter River and its tributary Freser, next to the Pyrenees near the French border. The population was 11,05 ...and Cuixá and ten years later he was appointed bishop ofVic Vic (; es, Vic or Pancracio Celdrán (2004). Diccionario de topónimos españoles y sus gentilicios (5ª edición). Madrid: Espasa Calpe. p. 843. ISBN 978-84-670-3054-9. «Vic o Vich (viquense, vigitano, vigatán, ausense, ausetano, ausonense): ...h. His travels to Rome (1011 and 1016) and his contact with Franco monasticism, accounted for his knowledge of the Roman liturgy and its introduction into the Catalan Church. The Benedictine reform inCluny Cluny () is a commune in the eastern French department of Saône-et-Loire, in the region of Bourgogne-Franche-Comté. It is northwest of Mâcon. The town grew up around the Benedictine Abbey of Cluny, founded by Duke William I of Aquitaine in 9 ...had a considerable impact on Cuixá with which Oliba maintained close relations. Oliba adopted Cluny's standards, both in architecture as well as customs and under his patronage and direction major reforms were carried out, new buildings or in other cases mere extensions to suit the needs of the times. During these initial years Abbot Oliba endeavored to be present at consecrations - meetings in which discussions regarding a particular construction, etc. were held. Oliba, during the period between 1030 and 1040 was the driving force behind important buildings such as: *Church of Sant Vicenç The Church of Sant Vicenç of Cardona ( ca, Església de Sant Vicenç de Cardona) is a First Romanesque, Lombard Romanesque architecture, Romanesque church in Cardona, Spain, Cardona, Catalonia, Spain. It was built between the years 1019 and 1040, ..., completely rebuilt. *Montserrat Montserrat ( ) is a British Overseas Territories, British Overseas Territory in the Caribbean. It is part of the Leeward Islands, the northern portion of the Lesser Antilles chain of the West Indies. Montserrat is about long and wide, with r ...and Montbuy Monasteries. *TheRipoll Ripoll () is the capital of the ''comarca'' of Ripollès, in the province of Girona, Catalonia, Spain. It is located on confluence of the Ter River and its tributary Freser, next to the Pyrenees near the French border. The population was 11,05 ..., Cuixá, St-Martin-du-Canigou andVic Vic (; es, Vic or Pancracio Celdrán (2004). Diccionario de topónimos españoles y sus gentilicios (5ª edición). Madrid: Espasa Calpe. p. 843. ISBN 978-84-670-3054-9. «Vic o Vich (viquense, vigitano, vigatán, ausense, ausetano, ausonense): ...Monasteries, the latter of which he was personally and directly involved. *Sant Pere de Rodes Sant Pere de Rodes () is a former Benedictine monastery in the comarca of Alt Empordà, in the North East of Catalonia, Spain. Location Located in the municipal area of El Port de la Selva in the province of Girona, Spain, it was built on the s .... *Girona Cathedral Girona Cathedral, also known as the Cathedral of Saint Mary of Girona (in Catalan: ''Catedral de Santa Maria de Girona'' or simply ''Catedral de Girona''), is a Roman Catholic church located in Girona, Catalonia, Spain. It is the seat of the R ....![]()
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Architectural schools in Spain
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In Spain geographical schools of architecture such as those in France, are not easily distinguished, because they are usually mixed with other architectural forms. However, there are a variety of buildings that can be clearly identified, if not entirely but to a large extent, as following the pattern of these French schools: *The
Auvergne Auvergne (; ; oc, label=Occitan, Auvèrnhe or ) is a former administrative region in central France, comprising the four departments of Allier, Puy-de-Dôme, Cantal and Haute-Loire. Since 1 January 2016, it has been part of the new region Auverg ...School seen in theSantiago de Compostela Cathedral The Santiago de Compostela Archcathedral Basilica (Spanish and Galician: ) is part of the Metropolitan Archdiocese of Santiago de Compostela and is an integral component of the Santiago de Compostela World Heritage Site in Galicia, Spain. The c ...and the San Vicente Basilica in Avila. *ThePoitou Poitou (, , ; ; Poitevin: ''Poetou'') was a province of west-central France whose capital city was Poitiers. Both Poitou and Poitiers are named after the Pictones Gallic tribe. Geography The main historical cities are Poitiers (historical c ...School, with Santo Domingo de Soria and most twelfth-century Catalan churches, such asSant Pere de Rodes Sant Pere de Rodes () is a former Benedictine monastery in the comarca of Alt Empordà, in the North East of Catalonia, Spain. Location Located in the municipal area of El Port de la Selva in the province of Girona, Spain, it was built on the s ...andSant Pere de Galligants Sant Pere de Galligants is Benedictine abbey in Girona, Catalonia. Since 1857, it is home to the Archaeology Museum of Catalonia venue in the city. The name translates to English as "Saint Peter of Galligants", where Galligants refers to the Riv .... *ThePérigord Périgord ( , ; ; oc, Peiregòrd / ) is a natural region and former province of France, which corresponds roughly to the current Dordogne department, now forming the northern part of the administrative region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine. It is div ...School, examples of which are now part of the transition to the Gothic, such as the Toro Collegiate (except its Byzantine-influenced dome).
Local variations
Each kingdom, region or geographic region of the peninsula, and some human events (such as the
Camino de Santiago The Camino de Santiago ( la, Peregrinatio Compostellana, "Pilgrimage of Compostela"; gl, O Camiño de Santiago), known in English as the Way of St James, is a network of pilgrims' ways or pilgrimages leading to the shrine of the apostle Saint ...), marked a distinctive style influenced by the geographical environment itself, by tradition, or simply by the gangs of hired masons and builders who moved from one place to another. As a result, in Romanesque architecture in Spain there are variations such as Catalan Romanesque, Aragonese Romanesque, Palencia Romanesque, Castilian and Leónese Romanesque, among others. Another fact to consider is the survival of theMoorish The term Moor, derived from the ancient Mauri, is an exonym first used by Christian Europeans to designate the Muslim inhabitants of the Maghreb, the Iberian Peninsula, Sicily and Malta during the Middle Ages. Moors are not a distinct or se ...populations, who formed gangs of workers and artists who gave a special stamp to buildings. These are what is known as brick Romanesque or Moorish Romanesque.
Romanesque periods
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In Spain, as in the rest of the Western Christian world, Romanesque art developed over three stages with their own characteristics. Historiography has defined these stages as early Romanesque, full Romanesque and late Romanesque. *
First Romanesque One of the first streams of Romanesque architecture in Europe from the 10th century and the beginning of 11th century is called First Romanesque or Lombard Romanesque. It took place in the region of Lombardy (at that time the term encompassing ...: architecture comprises a well-defined geographical area that runs from northern Italy, Mediterranean France, Burgundy and Catalan and Aragonese lands in Spain. It developed from the late tenth century until the middle of the eleventh century, except in isolated locations. During this Romanesque period, there were neither miniature paintings nor monumental sculptures. *Full Romanesque: developed from east towards Lisbon and from the south of Italy to Scandinavia. It spread, thanks to the monastic movement, the unification of the Catholic faith with the Roman liturgy and communication channels along the routes. It began its launch in the first half of the eleventh century and continued until mid-twelfth century. The best examples are in the "pilgrimage churches" (e.g. the Santiago cathedral), especially in areas of the ''repoblación The ''Repoblación'' (, ; pt, Repovoação, ) was the ninth-century repopulating of a large region between the River Duero and the Cantabrian Mountains, which had been depopulated in the early years of the Reconquista. In the reign of Alfonso ...''. It is characterized by the inclusion of monumental sculptures in the portals and spandrels and for the decoration and styling of the capitals, mouldings, fascias, etc.
TheJaca Cathedral The Cathedral of St Peter the Apostle ( es, Catedral de San Pedro Apóstol) is a Roman Catholic church located in Jaca, in Aragon, Spain. It is the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Jaca. It is the first Romanesque cathedral built in Arag ...was one of the first temples – if not the first – that was elevated with the aesthetic ideas and architecture of this Romanesque style which entered the peninsula with large French Romanesque influences. The decoration of its imposts and Romanesque arches with geometric themed checkerboard played a role in many of the buildings that were later built, giving this style the name of beleaguered or chequered Jaques. *Late Romanesque: chronologically it was diffused from the end of the full Romanesque period until the first quarter of the thirteenth century, when it began to be succeeded byGothic art Gothic art was a style of medieval art that developed in Northern France out of Romanesque art in the 12th century AD, led by the concurrent development of Gothic architecture. It spread to all of Western Europe, and much of Northern, Southern and .... This period was the busiest in terms of the construction of monasteries by the Cistercian monks.
Construction of Romanesque buildings in Spain
Romanesque religious buildings were never as monumental as the French constructions, or the constructions that later gave rise to
Gothic art Gothic art was a style of medieval art that developed in Northern France out of Romanesque art in the 12th century AD, led by the concurrent development of Gothic architecture. It spread to all of Western Europe, and much of Northern, Southern and .... The first buildings designs had thick walls and small openings through which a dim light could enter from outside. Later there was an evolution in the construction of the walls allowing the buildings to be better lightened and for opening bigger windows. The monastic buildings were the most numerous sharing importance with the cathedrals. Churches and parishes were constructed in cities while in small towns countless small churches, known as rural Romanesque, were built.
Material
The most precious but also the most expensive material was the stone. The stonemasons busied themselves carving it with a chisel, always selecting the good face of the block. These were made into
ashlar Ashlar () is finely dressed (cut, worked) stone, either an individual stone that has been worked until squared, or a structure built from such stones. Ashlar is the finest stone masonry unit, generally rectangular cuboid, mentioned by Vitruv ...s, which were generally available in horizontal rows and sometimes used along the edges. Hard rocks were almost always used. Masonry was also used, with hewn stone in the corners, windows and doors. If the stone was hard to get, because the corresponding geographic location had no quarries, or because it was too expensive at certain times, they used baked brick, slate or any ashlars stone. Paint and plaster were used as finish, both for the stone as well as for the masonry and the other materials, so that, once the walls were painted, it was difficult to distinguish whether it had one or the other underneath. Colourful Romanesque architecture was as widespread as it had been in Roman buildings.
Foundations
Medieval builders did extensive study for the foundation, taking into account the type of building that was to be built, the materials that were to be used and the ground upon which the building would be laid. First deep ditches were dug and were filled with stones and rubble. Trenches were distributed under the walls that would go over them and others were made crosswise in order to join the passageways together and strengthen the pillars of the
transverse arches The arches of the foot, formed by the tarsal and metatarsal bones, strengthened by ligaments and tendons, allow the foot to support the weight of the body in the erect posture with the least weight. They are categorized as longitudinal and tran .... The foundation formed a network that practically sketched the plan of the temple, thus differing from the isolated foundation for the support of the pillars used in theGothic style Gothic or Gothics may refer to: People and languages *Goths or Gothic people, the ethnonym of a group of East Germanic tribes **Gothic language, an extinct East Germanic language spoken by the Goths **Crimean Gothic, the Gothic language spoken b .... In some ruined churches all that remains is this foundation, giving archaeologists good study material. Archaeologists are able to determine the thickness of the walls from these revealed remains of the foundations, although it is known that in this respect the builders rather exaggerated and made excessively deep trenches and overly thick foundation for fear of landslides.
Vaults, naves and ceilings
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During the
First Romanesque One of the first streams of Romanesque architecture in Europe from the 10th century and the beginning of 11th century is called First Romanesque or Lombard Romanesque. It took place in the region of Lombardy (at that time the term encompassing ...period, many rural churches were still being covered with a wooden roof, more so in Catalonia and especially in the Boi Valley where the Romanesque renewal of old churches was done by Lombard builders who covered the gablednave The nave () is the central part of a church, stretching from the (normally western) main entrance or rear wall, to the transepts, or in a church without transepts, to the chancel. When a church contains side aisles, as in a basilica-type ...s with a wooden structure, respecting the old traditions of the region. However, the apse in these churches was always topped with an ovenvault Vault may refer to: * Jumping, the act of propelling oneself upwards Architecture * Vault (architecture), an arched form above an enclosed space * Bank vault, a reinforced room or compartment where valuables are stored * Burial vault (enclosure .... Throughout the eleventh century, naves were covered withbarrel vault A barrel vault, also known as a tunnel vault, wagon vault or wagonhead vault, is an architectural element formed by the extrusion of a single curve (or pair of curves, in the case of a pointed barrel vault) along a given distance. The curves are ...s, either a half barrel or a quarter barrel, a device used in Romanesque architecture throughout Europe. Later the groin vault was used. In Catalonia, these barrel vaults were used without reinforcements, while in Castile and León arches were used as support. The use of the groin vault (arising from the crossing of two perpendicular barrel vaults) had been lost and was later taken up by great master builders. The groin vault in turn gave way to the ribbed vault, which later became very common in Gothic architecture. The type of vaults used exclusively on the stairs of the towers were also called helical vaults. Examples of their use are at San Martín de Fromista,Sant Pere de Galligants Sant Pere de Galligants is Benedictine abbey in Girona, Catalonia. Since 1857, it is home to the Archaeology Museum of Catalonia venue in the city. The name translates to English as "Saint Peter of Galligants", where Galligants refers to the Riv ...and San Salvador de Leyre, among others. Corner vaults were built in the cloisters of monasteries and cathedrals. These result from the meeting of two groups in a cloister. The finishing of these vaults was not very easy, so builders had to use various tricks that ensured that flaws were not easily visible to the naked eye.
Arches
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In Spain the most used arch was the semicircular although the horseshoe arch and the pointed arch were also used. The arch was used exclusively throughout the eleventh century and first half of the twelfth century. In order to achieve certain heights, the vaults were made quite stilted, as in
Sant Joan de les Abadesses Sant Joan de les Abadesses () is a town and municipality located in the south-east of the comarca of Ripollès, in the province of Girona, Catalonia, Spain. Geography and climate The town is located along the upper part of the River Ter, in the v .... Many arcs were built doubled with the intention that they would be stronger. Later, in the portals, arches were formed with archivolts, i.e. a sequence of concentric arches decorated with simple or decorative plants or geometric mouldings. Pointed arches came from the Orient. It is unknown the exact date of their use in Romanesque architecture in Spain, although historians proposed some dates based on buildings containing one or more pointed arches that sometimes spawn an entire vault in some of its parts. There are buildings that correspond to the first quarter of the twelfth century, such as the Lugo and Santa Maria de Terrassa cathedrals. The early use of these arcs became a construction element which provided many advantages. It was an architectural breakthrough that the Cistercian monks were able to see from the beginning.
Buttresses
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Buttresses are continuous thick vertical walls that are placed at the sides of an arch or vault to counteract attacks. They were also placed on the outer walls of the naves of churches or cloisters. In Romanesque architecture are always visible is one of the elements that characterize it, especially in Spanish architecture, except in the Catalonia area where construction was done adopting a greater thickness of the walls.
Covers
The buildings were covered with a roof that could be made of different materials: *Stone (used frequently). These covers can still be seen in the Gallo tower of the old of Salamanca cathedral and the Ávila Cathedral. *Roof tile - capable of being changed frequently, the material resists weathering over time. *Glazed sheets, rare materials. It is located in the spire of the tower of the former Valladolid. *Slate, especially in areas where this material is abundant, especially in Galicia.
Towers
In Spanish buildings towers are located in different parts of the church - on the sides, over the transept and, in very special cases, over the straight section of the apse, as in the churches of the city ofSahagún Sahagún () is a town and municipality of Spain, part of the autonomous community of Castile and León and the province of León. It is the main populated place in the Leonese part of the Tierra de Campos natural region. Sahagún contains some ...in León. This placement was because, being built of brick (a material less consistent than stone), the builders had to locate the towers in the strongest, more resistant section (usually at the apses). A façade made up of two towers was not very common and usually seen only in temples of great importance. Towers served as steeples, especially in the Romanesque styles in Castile and León, they are what are called ''Turres signorum''. In many cases they were built as defence towers, especially in border territories experiencing military conflict, and the location of the tower depended on what was being defended. Thus the tower of the church of the Silos monastery was located to defend the monastery, the tower of theSan Pedro de Arlanza San Pedro de Arlanza is a ruined Benedictine monastery in north central Spain. It is located in the valley of the river Arlanza in Hortigüela, Burgos. Founded in 912, it has been called the "cradle of Castile" (''cuna de Castilla''). It was aban ...monastery was a very important defence for the entire area. The military aspect of these Romanesque towers evolved and changed over time so that at present it is difficult to guess at their original purpose or purpose for which they were used in other eras. In many cases these towers were attached to the sides of the church, and some even completely independent of the churches.
Bell-gables
A
gable A gable is the generally triangular portion of a wall between the edges of intersecting roof pitches. The shape of the gable and how it is detailed depends on the structural system used, which reflects climate, material availability, and aesth ...is an architectural element that is usually built on the façade and used, instead of a tower, to house the bells. Thebell-gable The bell gable ( es, espadaña, french: clocher-mur, it, campanile a vela) is an architectural element crowning the upper end of the wall of church buildings, usually in lieu of a church tower. It consists of a gable end in stone, with small ho ...(referred to as ''espadaña'' in the Iberian peninsula) was built as a vertical continuation of the wall and the spans were opened to receive the bells. The gable was easier and cheaper to build. In Spanish Romanesque they were very numerous especially in smaller rural Romanesque churches. They were made of a single span or several terraced storeys. They usually had pointed or pinion tops. There are all kinds of gables in the Romanesque style ofCampoo Campoo (formally Campoo-Los Valles) is a ''comarca'' of Cantabria (Spain) located in the High Ebro, with a surface little bigger than 1,000 km2, and including the municipalities of Hermandad de Campoo de Suso, Campoo de Enmedio, Campoo de Yu ...and Valderredible. There are some spectacular ones in other locations such as the one atAgullana Agullana is a municipality in the ''comarca'' of Alt Empordà, Girona, Catalonia Catalonia (; ca, Catalunya ; Aranese Occitan: ''Catalonha'' ; es, Cataluña ) is an autonomous community of Spain, designated as a ''nationality'' by its St ...in the Alto Ampurdán or the Astudillo, with five openings. There are more modest ones such as at the Santa Maria de Valbuena Monastery where its veins also have a unique placement.![]()
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Paintings
During the Romanesque era, a building was not considered finished until its walls had appropriate paintings. The walls of the most important and significant parts (especially the apses) were lined inside with iconographic paintings, many of which have come down to the twenty-first century, such as those belonging to churches in the Tahull Valley. The walls, both inside and out, were covered with a layer of paint in one color and the imposts, vains and columns were highlighted in the original material, but sometimes they were also painted in bright colors: green, yellow, ocher, red and blue. This custom of painting or revoking the buildings was not new or unique to the Romanesque of the Middle Ages but represented an inheritance or continuity of the construction method from olden times. Whether the material used was stone, ashlar or if the masonry was in bricks, the finish was a painted surface. Thus, in many cases it could not be determined if the exterior was made of stone or brick, which could only be determined from plaster scrapings. The paint finish gave the buildings protection against environmental assaults but these were removed in the nineteenth-century when theories were applied to expose the original building materials. Some of these paintings have remained in certain buildings, as a testimony of the past, on walls, sculptures and capitals. On the façade of the , traces of paint were still visible into the twentieth century, as witnessed and described by the Spanish historian Marqués de Lozoya. Sometimes carving the baskets of the capitals was too expensive and they were left completely smooth so that the painter could finish them with floral or historical motifs. In the San Paio de Abeleda church inOurense Ourense (; es, Orense ) is a city and capital of the province of Ourense, located in the Autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community of Galicia (Spain), Galicia, northwestern Spain. It is on the Camino Sanabrés path of the Way of St ..., there are vestiges of paintings on some capitals, which have even been repainted throughout its history. Fragments of capitals with their original painting have been found among the ruins of theSan Pedro de Arlanza San Pedro de Arlanza is a ruined Benedictine monastery in north central Spain. It is located in the valley of the river Arlanza in Hortigüela, Burgos. Founded in 912, it has been called the "cradle of Castile" (''cuna de Castilla''). It was aban ...monastery and they give an indication of how the rest was decorated.Cistercian The Cistercians, () officially the Order of Cistercians ( la, (Sacer) Ordo Cisterciensis, abbreviated as OCist or SOCist), are a Catholic religious order of monks and nuns that branched off from the Benedictines and follow the Rule of Saint ...andPremonstratensians The Order of Canons Regular of Prémontré (), also known as the Premonstratensians, the Norbertines and, in Britain and Ireland, as the White Canons (from the colour of their habit), is a religious order of canons regular of the Catholic Church ...monks also painted the walls of their churches, in white or a light earthy color, and they sometimes outlined the joints of the blocks.
Sculptures
The use of sculptures as decoration for buildings during the full Romanesque period was something so commonplace that it was considered a necessity. Architecture and sculpting represented an inseparable iconographical program. The idea of the Church (an idea developed and disseminated by the Benedictines of Cluny), was to teach Christian doctrine through the sculptures and paintings of the apses and interior walls. The capitals of the columns, thespandrels A spandrel is a roughly triangular space, usually found in pairs, between the top of an arch and a rectangular frame; between the tops of two adjacent arches or one of the four spaces between a circle within a square. They are frequently fill ..., thefriezes In architecture, the frieze is the wide central section part of an entablature and may be plain in the Ionic or Doric order, or decorated with bas-reliefs. Paterae are also usually used to decorate friezes. Even when neither columns nor ..., thecantilevers A cantilever is a rigid structural element that extends horizontally and is supported at only one end. Typically it extends from a flat vertical surface such as a wall, to which it must be firmly attached. Like other structural elements, a canti ...and thearchivolts An archivolt (or voussure) is an ornamental moulding or band following the curve on the underside of an arch. It is composed of bands of ornamental mouldings (or other architectural elements) surrounding an arched opening, corresponding to the ...of the portals were intricately decorated with stories from the Old and New Testaments. These sculptures were not limited to religious depictions but also covered a number of profane but equally important issues to the eleventh- and twelfth-century population, such as field work, the calendar (as in the case of the capitals of the Santa María la Real de Nieva cloister, from late Romanesque), war, customs, among others. In other buildings real, mythological and symbolic animals were sculpted, plus allegories of vices and virtues (the best example can be given in the erotic corbels of the San Pedro de Cervatos Collegiate in southern Cantabria). These decorations were not always of a historical or animals type; geometric decoration was very important at the beginning of the Romanesque thus floral and plant decoration were also used. Often the carved tympanum or the frieze depicted a series of images along the capitals of the columns of the archivolts.
Churches
The temples of theFirst Romanesque One of the first streams of Romanesque architecture in Europe from the 10th century and the beginning of 11th century is called First Romanesque or Lombard Romanesque. It took place in the region of Lombardy (at that time the term encompassing ...are simple, with a single nave topped by a semicircular apse (without atransept A transept (with two semitransepts) is a transverse part of any building, which lies across the main body of the building. In cruciform churches, a transept is an area set crosswise to the nave in a cruciform ("cross-shaped") building withi ...). The prototype of the Romanesque church was non-rural, medium-sized and with the floor plan of a basilica with three naves containing three semicircular apses and a transept. Throughout the twelfth century the traditional Hispanic type temples with three straight and terraced apses were still being built in some areas (such as in the city of Zamora). Church plans were adapted to the liturgical needs, as the number of canons or friars who required more altars for their religious functions was increasing. Temples were built with BenedictineCluny Cluny () is a commune in the eastern French department of Saône-et-Loire, in the region of Bourgogne-Franche-Comté. It is northwest of Mâcon. The town grew up around the Benedictine Abbey of Cluny, founded by Duke William I of Aquitaine in 9 ...-style apses added. A long transept that could accommodate more apses was adopted inCistercian The Cistercians, () officially the Order of Cistercians ( la, (Sacer) Ordo Cisterciensis, abbreviated as OCist or SOCist), are a Catholic religious order of monks and nuns that branched off from the Benedictines and follow the Rule of Saint ...architecture, and there are more examples of this type of construction. This feature was also adopted by the cathedrals (Tarragona, Lleida, Ourense andSigüenza Sigüenza () is a city in the Serranía de Guadalajara comarca, Province of Guadalajara, Castile-La Mancha, Spain. History The site of the ancient ''Segontia'' ('dominating over the valley') of the Celtiberian Arevaci, now called ('old town ...). There are also examples of cruciform structures that precisely depict aLatin cross A Latin cross or ''crux immissa'' is a type of cross in which the vertical beam sticks above the crossbeam, with the three upper arms either equally long or with the vertical topmost arm shorter than the two horizontal arms, and always with a mu ..., such as the eleventh-century Santa Marta de Tera church in Zamora, or the San Lorenzo de Zorita del Páramo church in Palencia, whose header is not square but semicircular. There are also circular plans, with a single nave such as the San Marcos church in Salamanca, or the Vera Cruz church in Segovia.
Vestry
In the Romanesque era small churches or parish churches did not havevestries A vestry was a committee for the local secular and ecclesiastical government for a parish in England, Wales and some English colonies which originally met in the vestry or sacristy of the parish church, and consequently became known colloquially .... Vestries were only added to these churches beginning in the sixteenth century. However, in the grand monasteries or cathedrals there was a space adapted in the cloister for this purpose.
Crypts
Crypts A crypt (from Latin ''crypta'' "vault") is a stone chamber beneath the floor of a church or other building. It typically contains coffins, sarcophagi, or religious relics. Originally, crypts were typically found below the main apse of a churc ...are one of the characteristic features of Romanesque architecture. In theFirst Romanesque One of the first streams of Romanesque architecture in Europe from the 10th century and the beginning of 11th century is called First Romanesque or Lombard Romanesque. It took place in the region of Lombardy (at that time the term encompassing ..., its use spread due to the influence of theFranks The Franks ( la, Franci or ) were a group of Germanic peoples whose name was first mentioned in 3rd-century Roman sources, and associated with tribes between the Lower Rhine and the Ems River, on the edge of the Roman Empire.H. Schutz: Tools, .... Spaces were built just below the top of the church and were intended for keeping the relics of martyrs, the worship of whom came about fromCarolingian The Carolingian dynasty (; known variously as the Carlovingians, Carolingus, Carolings, Karolinger or Karlings) was a Frankish noble family named after Charlemagne, grandson of mayor Charles Martel and a descendant of the Arnulfing and Pippin ...influence. They usually had three naves with a groin vault cover, although there are variations, such as the circular crypt with a pillar in the center ( Cuixá andSant Pere de Rodes Sant Pere de Rodes () is a former Benedictine monastery in the comarca of Alt Empordà, in the North East of Catalonia, Spain. Location Located in the municipal area of El Port de la Selva in the province of Girona, Spain, it was built on the s ...). Throughout the eleventh century, they began to lose importance as recipients of relics and were instead built for practical and necessary architectural purposes, adapting to the terrain on which the church was built (this is the function of theMonastery of Leyre The Monastery of San Salvador of Leyre ( eu, Leireko San Salbatore monasterioa; es, Monasterio de San Salvador de Leire) is a religious complex to the south of the Sierra of Leyre, in northern Navarre, Spain, representing one of the most import ...crypt). Throughout the twelfth century, few crypts were built and those that were built were due to the uneven ground. Later the crypts were converted tofunerary A funeral is a ceremony connected with the Disposal of human corpses, final disposition of a corpse, such as a burial or cremation, with the attendant observances. Funerary customs comprise the complex of beliefs and practices used by a culture ...purposes.
Tribunes
Thetribunes Tribune () was the title of various elected officials in ancient Rome. The two most important were the tribunes of the plebs and the military tribunes. For most of Roman history, a college of ten tribunes of the plebs acted as a check on the ...were galleries over the aisles that were used by important people to monitor the liturgy. They had little importance in Romanesque Spain, with their construction being very scarce. Two examples are known: the San Vicente de Avila and theBasilica of San Isidoro In Ancient Roman architecture, a basilica is a large public building with multiple functions, typically built alongside the town's forum. The basilica was in the Latin West equivalent to a stoa in the Greek East. The building gave its name .... Traditional historiography suggests that, in the latter church, the tribune was a special place for Queen Sancha, wife of Ferdinand I, but more recent studies show that the dates do not match. There is little information on this architecture.
Triforia
Atriforium A triforium is an interior gallery, opening onto the tall central space of a building at an upper level. In a church, it opens onto the nave from above the side aisles; it may occur at the level of the clerestory windows, or it may be locate ...is a gallery with arches running along the top of the lower naves of a church, below the large windows of the main nave. It sometimes surrounds the apse at the same height. Its origin was purely cosmetic, since if the nave was too high there was a heavy space between the ceiling windows and the supporting arches of the lower lateral naves. At first the arch of the triforium was not set, but it was then thought that it could be used to provide light and ventilation, while leaving a passage for building services and surveillance. This construction could be done because the aisles are always pushed into the central nave, thus leaving a usable hole of the same depth as the width of the aisle. This element had its true development in the Gothic era. In Spanish Romanesque architecture triforia are scarce because the bare wall was usually left in their place or a blind arcade was built. A good example of a triforium is the Santiago de Compostela cathedral. The aisles of this temple has two floors and the triforium occupies the entire second, covering the entire building and lining the outside by a series of windows that provide light and interior arches. Another example is in the Lugo Cathedral, although in this case it runs along all the walls. In San Vicente de Ávila the triforium is a dark gallery that does not provide light from outside. In some pilgrimage churches the triforium was at times used as an area for overnight accommodation for pilgrims.
Porticos and galleries
Theportico A portico is a porch leading to the entrance of a building, or extended as a colonnade, with a roof structure over a walkway, supported by columns or enclosed by walls. This idea was widely used in ancient Greece and has influenced many cult ...is a space originally designed for preventing inclement weather. It was constructed in both rural and city churches, in front of the main door to protect it. In most cases they were made with a wooden structure that stood the test of time, but in many cases the construction was in stone resulting in galleries of great development, which in some cases were true works of art. The porticos were reminiscent of the narthex of the Latin basilicas. It formed an advanced body over the central part of the main façade and if this façade had towers then it occupied the space between them, as in thePortico of Glory The Portico of Glory ( gl, Pórtico da Gloria) of Santiago de Compostela Cathedral is a Romanesque portico and the cathedral's main gate created by Master Mateo and his workshop, on the orders of King Ferdinand II of León. The king donated to ...in Santiago de Compostela cathedral. At other times it occupied the entire front, forming a covered space that was called a "Galilee".
Rose windows
Rose window Rose window is often used as a generic term applied to a circular window, but is especially used for those found in Gothic cathedrals and churches. The windows are divided into segments by stone mullions and tracery. The term ''rose window'' w ...s are circular windows made of stone, whose origin is in the Romanoculus Oculus (a term from Latin ''oculus'', meaning 'eye'), may refer to the following Architecture * Oculus (architecture), a circular opening in the centre of a dome or in a wall Arts, entertainment, and media * ''Oculus'' (film), a 2013 American ...of the basilicas. In Spain these rose windows were employed from the eleventh century. Throughout the Romanesque, rose windows became important and increased in size, culminating in the Gothic era, which produced some of the most beautiful and spectacular specimens.
Cloisters
The
cloister A cloister (from Latin ''claustrum'', "enclosure") is a covered walk, open gallery, or open arcade running along the walls of buildings and forming a quadrangle or garth. The attachment of a cloister to a cathedral or church, commonly against a ...is an architectural unit usually built next to cathedrals and monastic churches, attached to the north or south. The cloister par excellence is the one promulgated by the Benedictine monks. The different units of the cloister, hinged on all four sides of a square courtyard, were dedicated to the service of the life of the community. In Spanish Romanesque many cloisters have been preserved, especially in the Catalan region.
Civil and military architecture
The Romanesque civil architecture is almost unheard of and most of the buildings that are considered to be from this period, are not, although some retain parts of the foundation or a door or semicircular window from the Romanesque era, their development and architectural design belong to more modern times.
Civil buildings
Domestic buildings, including palaces, had no great pretensions. Houses were built of flimsy material (as opposed to the grandeur of the churches) and were unable to stand the test of time. When they wished to give importance to the civil architecture, the little that there was transformed and the new one was built with Gothic tendencies. So it was with the so-called Romanesque palace of
Diego Gelmírez Diego Gelmírez or Xelmírez ( la, Didacus Gelmirici; c. 1069 – c. 1140) was the second bishop (from 1100) and first archbishop (from 1120) of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Santiago de Compostela, Catholic Archdiocese of Santiago de Compost ...inSantiago de Compostela Santiago de Compostela is the capital of the autonomous community of Galicia, in northwestern Spain. The city has its origin in the shrine of Saint James the Great, now the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela, as the destination of the Way of St ..., which is actually a totally Gothic factory, or buildings of Segoviasinecure A sinecure ( or ; from the Latin , 'without', and , 'care') is an office, carrying a salary or otherwise generating income, that requires or involves little or no responsibility, labour, or active service. The term originated in the medieval chu ...s from the Middle Ages. There is the famous palace of Dona Berenguela in the city ofLeon Leon, Léon (French) or León (Spanish) may refer to: Places Europe * León, Spain, capital city of the Province of León * Province of León, Spain * Kingdom of León, an independent state in the Iberian Peninsula from 910 to 1230 and again fro ..., called a Romanesque palace, but its structure and planning actually correspond to the last years of the late Middle Ages, far from Romanesque, though it retains (perhaps from outside the original location) some Romanesque windows. There is also, inCuéllar Cuéllar () is a municipality in the Province of Segovia, within the autonomous community of Castile and León, Spain. The municipality had a population of 9,730 inhabitants according to the municipal register of inhabitants (INE) as of 1 Janu ..., the , the origin of which is supposed to date from the time of the ''Repoblación The ''Repoblación'' (, ; pt, Repovoação, ) was the ninth-century repopulating of a large region between the River Duero and the Cantabrian Mountains, which had been depopulated in the early years of the Reconquista. In the reign of Alfonso ...''. Maybe part of its foundations are Romanesque, but the current building is from the early fourteenth century, even though it has a Romanesque portal that was perhaps inherited from the previous building or reused from another. This palace is however considered as one of the few examples of civil Romanesque. Traditionally, buildings that have a good portal with a semicircular arch and large segments have been called "Romanesque" houses or palaces, but they are actually structures from the Gothic era. An example of what could be a Romanesque palace built in stone is seen in the façade of the Palace of the Kings of Navarre inEstella Estella may refer to: People * Diego de Estella (1524–1578) * Estella Sneider (born 1950) *Estella Warren (born 1978), Canadian actress *Estella, the ''nom de guerre'' of Italian labor leader Teresa Noce Fictional *Estella Havisham, a charact ...,Navarre Navarre (; es, Navarra ; eu, Nafarroa ), officially the Chartered Community of Navarre ( es, Comunidad Foral de Navarra, links=no ; eu, Nafarroako Foru Komunitatea, links=no ), is a foral autonomous community and province in northern Spain, ....
See also
*Spanish Romanesque Spanish Romanesque designates the Romanesque art developed in the Chronology of the kingdoms on the Iberian peninsula, Hispanic-Christian kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula in the 11th and 12th centuries. Its stylistic features are essentially co ...* Romanesque churches in Madrid *List of Romanesque buildings Listed below are examples of surviving buildings in Romanesque style in Europe, sorted by modern day countries. List Austria * Gurk Cathedral, Gurk, Carinthia * Ossiach Abbey, Ossiach, Carinthia * Virgilkapelle, Vienna * Millstatt Abbey, ...
Notes
Bibliography
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