The ''Roman d'Alexandre en prose'' (''Prose Alexander-Romance'') is one of many medieval " Alexander romances" relating the adventures of
Alexander the Great
Alexander III of Macedon (; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), most commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the Ancient Greece, ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia (ancient kingdom), Macedon. He succeeded his father Philip ...
, which were by then greatly elaborated with fantastical additions to the historical accounts. Alexander was one of the medieval "
Nine Worthies
The Nine Worthies are nine historical, scriptural, and legendary men of distinction who personify the ideals of chivalry established in the Middle Ages, whose lives were deemed a valuable study for aspirants to chivalric status. All were commonly ...
," and his journeys eastward—and most especially the strange and exotic people and animals he encountered there—were treated in a number of different texts in a variety of genres. Based on the relatively large number of surviving manuscripts, as well as the deluxe quality of many of these productions, the
Old French
Old French (, , ; ) was the language spoken in most of the northern half of France approximately between the late 8th
vernacular
Vernacular is the ordinary, informal, spoken language, spoken form of language, particularly when perceptual dialectology, perceived as having lower social status or less Prestige (sociolinguistics), prestige than standard language, which is mor ...
prose treatment of the legend.
Origins
In the mid-tenth century, Archpriest Leo of Naples translated into Latin a second-century Greek language, Greek Alexander romance falsely attributed to
Callisthenes
Callisthenes of Olynthus ( /kəˈlɪsθəˌniːz/; Greek: Καλλισθένης; 360 – 327 BCE) was a Greek historian in Macedon with connections to both Aristotle and Alexander the Great. He accompanied Alexander the Great during his Asiati ...
. This new translation was later supplemented by other material (from sources including Orosius's ''Historia adversus paganos'') and, in its expanded form, came to be known as the . It is this Latin version that was, in its turn, freely translated into the Old French text known as the ''Roman d'Alexandre en prose'' (''Alexander Romance in Prose''), borrowing at times from other sources, including the verse ''
Roman d'Alexandre
The ''Roman d'Alexandre'', from the Old French ''Li romans d'Alixandre'' (English language">English: "Romance of Alexander"), is a 16,000-verseHasenohr, 1306. twelfth-centuryThe Medieval Alexander Project at the University of Rochester estimat ...
''. The prose romance dates to the thirteenth century. There are three major recensions of the text, where subsequent editors either added supplements or made excisions.
Plot
Nectanebus the magician and astrologer is the king of
Egypt
Egypt ( , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning the Northeast Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to northe ...
, but the country is attacked by the Persians and Nectanebus is sent into exile. He finds a new home at the court of
Philip
Philip, also Phillip, is a male name derived from the Macedonian Old Koine language, Greek (''Philippos'', lit. "horse-loving" or "fond of horses"), from a compound of (''philos'', "dear", "loved", "loving") and (''hippos'', "horse"). Prominen ...
, the king of
Macedon
Macedonia ( ; , ), also called Macedon ( ), was an ancient kingdom on the periphery of Archaic and Classical Greece, which later became the dominant state of Hellenistic Greece. The kingdom was founded and initially ruled by the royal ...
. The king is away, leaving his wife
Olympias
Olympias (; c. 375–316 BC) was a Ancient Greeks, Greek princess of the Molossians, the eldest daughter of king Neoptolemus I of Epirus, the sister of Alexander I of Epirus, the fourth wife of Philip of Macedon, Philip II, the king of Macedonia ...
behind. Nectanebus prophesies to Olympias that the god Amon will visit her in a dream, and conceive a son. Nectanebus himself then proceeds to make the prediction true by coming to the queen at night disguised as a
dragon
A dragon is a Magic (supernatural), magical legendary creature that appears in the folklore of multiple cultures worldwide. Beliefs about dragons vary considerably through regions, but European dragon, dragons in Western cultures since the Hi ...
. The queen becomes pregnant, and is initially concerned about the anger of Philip when he returns. But Philip has himself had a prophetic dream, foretelling that his wife will give birth to a boy, conceived by a god, who will go on to be a great conqueror. He therefore accepts the illegitimate child as his own.
As the young Alexander grows older, however, this uneasy situation grows unstable. While stargazing, Alexander pushes Nectanebus into a ditch and the magician is killed, and, as he is dying, reveals to Alexander his true parentage. After Alexander is knighted by Philip, he tames the horse
Bucephalus
Bucephalus (; ; – June 326 BC) or Bucephalas, was the horse of Alexander the Great, and one of the most famous horses of classical antiquity. According to the '' Alexander Romance'' (1.15), the name "Bucephalus" literally means "ox-h ...
, and departs on his first military expedition. He conquers Nicholas, king of the Aridians, and is crowned their king. When he returns to Macedonia, however, he finds that in his absence Philip has set Olympias aside and is about to marry another. After an altercation, in which Alexander kills Lycias, one of Philip's courtiers, Philip is ultimately reconciled with Olympias.
Alexander then embarks on a military campaign in Armenia. While he is away, Pausania, the king of
Bithynia
Bithynia (; ) was an ancient region, kingdom and Roman province in the northwest of Asia Minor (present-day Turkey), adjoining the Sea of Marmara, the Bosporus, and the Black Sea. It bordered Mysia to the southwest, Paphlagonia to the northeast a ...
and one of Philip's vassals, rebels, and Philip is mortally wounded. Alexander returns in time to kill Pausania and avenge his father. He succeeds as king of Macedonia, and embarks on a tour of conquest around the Mediterranean, which includes the founding of
Alexandria
Alexandria ( ; ) is the List of cities and towns in Egypt#Largest cities, second largest city in Egypt and the List of coastal settlements of the Mediterranean Sea, largest city on the Mediterranean coast. It lies at the western edge of the Nile ...
in Egypt.
Alexander then turns his attention to
Persia
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) and also known as Persia, is a country in West Asia. It borders Iraq to the west, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Armenia to the northwest, the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkmenistan to the nort ...
: the king, Darius, has sent him a challenge, and he replies with an invasion. After a protracted campaign, Darius is killed by treachery from within his own family. Alexander weeps over his fallen foe, buries the king honorably, and sentences the traitors to death. He then marries Darius's daughter, Roxane.
Meanwhile, Darius's old ally, Porrus, the king of
India
India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...
, still threatens, and Alexander sets out further eastward. Along the way he encounters many strange and exotic people and animals—this part of the narrative participates heavily in the 'Wonders of the East' genre of medieval literature. He kills Porrus, but continues on, encountering more and more strange creatures and peoples, including Queen Candace. When he reaches the end of the earth, he embarks on further missions of exploration. He orders a contraption to be built that is lifted into the air by griffons, enabling him to fly up into the air. Then he orders a sort of submarine to be made out of glass, enabling him to explore under the sea. He sends back letters to his mother and to
Aristotle
Aristotle (; 384–322 BC) was an Ancient Greek philosophy, Ancient Greek philosopher and polymath. His writings cover a broad range of subjects spanning the natural sciences, philosophy, linguistics, economics, politics, psychology, a ...
, describing his deeds.
Alexander conquers
Babylon
Babylon ( ) was an ancient city located on the lower Euphrates river in southern Mesopotamia, within modern-day Hillah, Iraq, about south of modern-day Baghdad. Babylon functioned as the main cultural and political centre of the Akkadian-s ...
, and throws a great celebration. During the feast, he is poisoned by Jobas, the son of
Antipater
Antipater (; ; 400 BC319 BC) was a Macedonian general, regent and statesman under the successive kingships of Philip II of Macedon and his son, Alexander the Great. In the wake of the collapse of the Argead house, his son Cassander ...
, king of Tyre. After his death, there is a falling-out among his heirs. Olympias is killed by
Cassander
Cassander (; ; 355 BC – 297 BC) was king of the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia from 305 BC until 297 BC, and '' de facto'' ruler of southern Greece from 317 BC until his death.
A son of Antipater and a contemporary of Alexander the ...
, another of Antipater's sons, and her body thrown to the dogs. Roxane is imprisoned along with Ercules, Alexander's son.
Manuscripts
The romance is recorded in seventeen manuscripts (one of them a fragment and another destroyed), of which ten are extensively illustrated. A further four manuscripts, including the fragment, have spaces left for miniatures that were never filled in. The manuscripts are:The sigla listed are those assigned in Ross 1985, p. 173. This list differs slightly from those appearing in Hilka 1920 and Ross 1985, on which it is based. An additional manuscript (A: Cambridge, Fitzwilliam Museum, CFM 20, ''olim'' Ashburnham, Barrois 16) was long considered to be another surviving copy of this text, but has since been determined to be a copy of the twelfth-century ''Compilation of St. Albans'', one of the ''Prose Alexander's'' sources;
# Berlin, Königliches Kupferstichkabinett, 78, C.I. (Early fourteenth century).
# Br: Brussels, Bibliothèque Royale, 11040. (Late fourteenth century).
# C Chantilly, Musée Condé, 651. (Late fifteenth century).
# L: Le Mans, Bibliothèque de la Ville, 103. (Late fourteenth century).
# R1 London, British Library, Royal 15. E. vi - the
Talbot Shrewsbury Book
The Talbot Shrewsbury BookLondon, British Library Royal 15 E vi is a very large richly-illuminated manuscript made in Rouen (Normandy) in 1444/5. It was presented by John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury (d. 1453) to the French princess, Margaret of ...
Bodleian Library
The Bodleian Library () is the main research library of the University of Oxford. Founded in 1602 by Sir Thomas Bodley, it is one of the oldest libraries in Europe. With over 13 million printed items, it is the second-largest library in ...
, Rawlinson D. 913 (''olim'' 1370), ff. 103-5 (fragment). (Fourteenth century).
The text also survives in ten early printed editions from the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, of which the oldest was published in Paris in 1506.
References
Editions
*
* {{cite book, last1=Otaka, first1=Yorio, last2=Fukui, first2=Hideka, last3=Ferlampin-Archer, first3=Christine, title=Roman d'Alexandre en Prose: ritish Library, Royal 15. E. viyear=2008, publisher=Centre de la recherche interculturelle à l'Université Otemae, location=
saka
The Saka, Old Chinese, old , Pinyin, mod. , ), Shaka (Sanskrit (Brāhmī): , , ; Sanskrit (Devanāgarī): , ), or Sacae (Ancient Greek: ; Latin: were a group of nomadic Iranian peoples, Eastern Iranian peoples who lived in the Eurasian ...