The Roman Assemblies were institutions in
ancient Rome
In modern historiography, ancient Rome refers to Roman civilisation from the founding of the city of Rome in the 8th century BC to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD. It encompasses the Roman Kingdom (753–509 B ...
. They functioned as the machinery of the Roman legislative branch, and thus (theoretically at least) passed all legislation. Since the assemblies operated on the basis of a direct democracy, ordinary citizens, and not elected representatives, would cast all ballots. The assemblies were subject to strong checks on their power by the executive branch and by the
Roman Senate
The Roman Senate ( la, Senātus Rōmānus) was a governing and advisory assembly in ancient Rome. It was one of the most enduring institutions in Roman history, being established in the first days of the city of Rome (traditionally founded in ...
. Laws were passed (and magistrates elected) by
Curia
Curia (Latin plural curiae) in ancient Rome referred to one of the original groupings of the citizenry, eventually numbering 30, and later every Roman citizen was presumed to belong to one. While they originally likely had wider powers, they came ...
(in the
Curiate Assembly
The Curiate Assembly (''comitia curiata'') was the principal assembly that evolved in shape and form over the course of the Roman Kingdom until the Comitia Centuriata organized by Servius Tullius. During these first decades, the people of Rome we ...
), Tribes (in the
Tribal Assembly
The Tribal Assembly (''comitia populi tributa'') was an assembly consisting of all Roman citizens convened by tribes (''tribus'').
In the Roman Republic, citizens did not elect legislative representatives. Instead, they voted themselves on legisl ...
), and century (in the
Centuriate Assembly
The Centuriate Assembly (Latin: ''comitia centuriata'') of the Roman Republic was one of the three voting assemblies in the Roman constitution. It was named the Centuriate Assembly as it originally divided Roman citizens into groups of one hundred ...
).
When the city of Rome was founded (traditionally dated at 753 BC), a senate and an assembly, the
Curiate Assembly
The Curiate Assembly (''comitia curiata'') was the principal assembly that evolved in shape and form over the course of the Roman Kingdom until the Comitia Centuriata organized by Servius Tullius. During these first decades, the people of Rome we ...
, were both created. The Curiate Assembly was the principal legislative assembly during the era of the
Roman Kingdom
The Roman Kingdom (also referred to as the Roman monarchy, or the regal period of ancient Rome) was the earliest period of Roman history when the city and its territory were ruled by kings. According to oral accounts, the Roman Kingdom began wi ...
. While its primary purpose was to elect new kings, it also possessed rudimentary legislative powers. Shortly after the founding of the
Roman Republic
The Roman Republic ( la, Res publica Romana ) was a form of government of Rome and the era of the classical Roman civilization when it was run through public representation of the Roman people. Beginning with the overthrow of the Roman Kin ...
(traditionally dated to 509 BC), the principal legislative authority shifted to two new assemblies, the Tribal Assembly ("Citizen's Assembly") and the Centuriate Assembly.
Under the empire, the powers that had been held by the assemblies were transferred to the senate. While the assemblies eventually lost their last semblance of political power, citizens continued to gather into them for organizational purposes. Eventually, however, the assemblies were abandoned.
Assemblies of the Roman Kingdom
The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Kingdom were political institutions in the ancient
Roman Kingdom
The Roman Kingdom (also referred to as the Roman monarchy, or the regal period of ancient Rome) was the earliest period of Roman history when the city and its territory were ruled by kings. According to oral accounts, the Roman Kingdom began wi ...
. While one assembly, the
Curiate Assembly
The Curiate Assembly (''comitia curiata'') was the principal assembly that evolved in shape and form over the course of the Roman Kingdom until the Comitia Centuriata organized by Servius Tullius. During these first decades, the people of Rome we ...
, had some legislative powers,
[Abbott, 18] these powers involved nothing more than a right to symbolically ratify decrees issued by the
Roman King
The king of Rome ( la, rex Romae) was the ruler of the Roman Kingdom. According to legend, the first king of Rome was Romulus, who founded the city in 753 BC upon the Palatine Hill. Seven legendary kings are said to have ruled Rome until 509 ...
.
[Abbott, 19] The functions of the other assembly, the
Calate Assembly, were purely
religious
Religion is usually defined as a social system, social-cultural system of designated religious behaviour, behaviors and practices, morality, morals, beliefs, worldviews, religious text, texts, sacred site, sanctified places, prophecy, prophecie ...
.
During the years of the kingdom, the
People of Rome were organized on the basis of units called
curia
Curia (Latin plural curiae) in ancient Rome referred to one of the original groupings of the citizenry, eventually numbering 30, and later every Roman citizen was presumed to belong to one. While they originally likely had wider powers, they came ...
.
All of the People of Rome were divided amongst a total of thirty curiae.
These curiae were the basic units of division in the two popular assemblies.
[Byrd, 33] The members in each curia would vote, and the majority in each curia would determine how that curia voted before the assembly. Thus, a majority of the curiae (sixteen out of the thirty total curiae) were needed during any vote before either the Curiate Assembly or the Calculate Assembly. They functioned as the Roman legislative branch.
The king presided over the assembly, and submitted decrees to it for ratification.
After a king died, the
Interrex
The interrex (plural interreges) was literally a ruler "between kings" (Latin ''inter reges'') during the Roman Kingdom and the Roman Republic. He was in effect a short-term regent.
History
The office of ''interrex'' was supposedly created follow ...
selected a candidate to replace the king.
[Abbott, 14] After the nominee received the approval of the
Roman Senate
The Roman Senate ( la, Senātus Rōmānus) was a governing and advisory assembly in ancient Rome. It was one of the most enduring institutions in Roman history, being established in the first days of the city of Rome (traditionally founded in ...
, the Interrex held the formal election before the Curiate Assembly. After the Curiate Assembly elected the new king, and the senate ratified that election, the Interrex then presided over the assembly as it voted on the law which granted the king his legal powers (the ''
lex curiata de imperio
In the constitution of ancient Rome, the ''lex curiata de imperio'' (plural ''leges curiatae'') was the law confirming the rights of higher magistrates to hold power, or ''imperium''. In theory, it was passed by the ''comitia curiata'', which was ...
'').
On the ''
calends
The calends or kalends ( la, kalendae) is the first day of every month in the Roman calendar. The English word " calendar" is derived from this word.
Use
The Romans called the first day of every month the ''calends'', signifying the start of a ...
'' (the first day of the month), and the ''
nones Nones may refer to:
* ''Nones'' (Auden), a 1951 book of poems by W. H. Auden
* ''Nones'' (Berio), a 1954 orchestral composition by Luciano Berio
*Nones (calendar), or ''Nonae'', days of the Roman Calendar
*None (liturgy)
Nones (), also known as N ...
'' (around the fifth day of the month), this assembly met to hear announcements.
Appeals heard by this assembly often had to deal with questions concerning Roman family law.
[Abbott, 15] During two fixed days in the spring, the assembly was to always meet to witness wills and adoptions.
The assembly also had jurisdiction over the admission of new families to a curia, the transfer of families between two curiae, and the transfer of individuals from
plebeian
In ancient Rome, the plebeians (also called plebs) were the general body of free Roman citizens who were not patricians, as determined by the census, or in other words " commoners". Both classes were hereditary.
Etymology
The precise origins of ...
(commoner) to
patrician
Patrician may refer to:
* Patrician (ancient Rome), the original aristocratic families of ancient Rome, and a synonym for "aristocratic" in modern English usage
* Patrician (post-Roman Europe), the governing elites of cities in parts of medieval ...
(aristocratic) status (or vice versa).
Assemblies of the Roman Republic
The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic were political institutions in the ancient
Roman Republic
The Roman Republic ( la, Res publica Romana ) was a form of government of Rome and the era of the classical Roman civilization when it was run through public representation of the Roman people. Beginning with the overthrow of the Roman Kin ...
. There were two types of Roman assembly. The first was the ''comitia'',
[Lintott, 42] which was an assembly of Roman citizens.
[Abbott, 251] Here, Roman citizens gathered to enact laws, elect magistrates, and try judicial cases. The second type of assembly was the council (''concilium''), which was an assembly of a specific group of citizens.
For example, the "
Plebeian Council
The ''Concilium Plebis'' (English: Plebeian Council., Plebeian Assembly, People's Assembly or Council of the Plebs) was the principal assembly of the common people of the ancient Roman Republic. It functioned as a legislative/judicial assembly, ...
" was an assembly where Plebeians gathered to elect Plebeian magistrates, pass laws that applied only to Plebeians, and try judicial cases concerning Plebeians.
[Lintott, 43] A convention (''conventio''), in contrast, was an unofficial forum for communication, where citizens gathered to debate bills, campaign for office, and decide judicial cases.
The voters first assembled into conventions to deliberate, and then they assembled into committees or councils to actually vote.
[Taylor, 2] In addition to the curiae (familial groupings), Roman citizens were also organized into centuries (for military purposes) and tribes (for civil purposes). Each gathered into an assembly for legislative, electoral, and judicial purposes. The
Centuriate Assembly
The Centuriate Assembly (Latin: ''comitia centuriata'') of the Roman Republic was one of the three voting assemblies in the Roman constitution. It was named the Centuriate Assembly as it originally divided Roman citizens into groups of one hundred ...
was the assembly of the Centuries, while the
Tribal Assembly
The Tribal Assembly (''comitia populi tributa'') was an assembly consisting of all Roman citizens convened by tribes (''tribus'').
In the Roman Republic, citizens did not elect legislative representatives. Instead, they voted themselves on legisl ...
was the assembly of the Tribes. Only a block of voters (Century, Tribe or Curia), and not the individual electors, cast the formal vote (one vote per block) before the assembly.
[Taylor, 40] The majority of votes in any Century, Tribe, or Curia decided how that Century, Tribe, or Curia voted.
The Centuriate Assembly was divided into 193 (later 373) Centuries, with each Century belonging to one of three classes: the officer class, the infantry, and the unarmed adjuncts.
[Taylor, 85][Cicero, 226] During a vote, the Centuries voted, one at a time, by order of seniority. The president of the Centuriate Assembly was usually a
Roman Consul
A consul held the highest elected political office of the Roman Republic ( to 27 BC), and ancient Romans considered the consulship the second-highest level of the ''cursus honorum'' (an ascending sequence of public offices to which politic ...
(the chief magistrate of the republic).
[Polybius, 132] Only the Centuriate Assembly could elect Consuls,
Praetors
Praetor ( , ), also pretor, was the title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to a man acting in one of two official capacities: (i) the commander of an army, and (ii) as an elected '' magistratus'' (magistrate), assigned to discharge vario ...
and
Censors
Censorship is the suppression of speech, public communication, or other information. This may be done on the basis that such material is considered objectionable, harmful, sensitive, or "inconvenient". Censorship can be conducted by governments ...
,
declare war
A declaration of war is a formal act by which one state announces existing or impending war activity against another. The declaration is a performative speech act (or the signing of a document) by an authorized party of a national government, in ...
,
[Abbott, 257] and ratify the results of a census.
[Taylor, 3, 4] While it had the power to pass ordinary laws (''leges''), it rarely did so.
The organization of the Tribal Assembly was much simpler than was that of the Centuriate Assembly, in contrast, since its organization was based on only thirty-five Tribes. The Tribes were not ethnic or kinship groups, but rather geographical divisions (similar to modern
U.S. Congress
The United States Congress is the legislature of the federal government of the United States. It is Bicameralism, bicameral, composed of a lower body, the United States House of Representatives, House of Representatives, and an upper body, ...
ional districts or Commonwealth Parliamentary constituencies).
[Lintott, 51] The president of the Tribal Assembly was usually a Consul,
and under his presidency, the assembly elected
Quaestors
A ( , , ; "investigator") was a public official in Ancient Rome. There were various types of quaestors, with the title used to describe greatly different offices at different times.
In the Roman Republic, quaestors were elected officials who ...
,
Curule Aediles
''Aedile'' ( ; la, aedīlis , from , "temple edifice") was an elected office of the Roman Republic. Based in Rome, the aediles were responsible for maintenance of public buildings () and regulation of public festivals. They also had powers to enf ...
, and
Military Tribunes
A military tribune (Latin ''tribunus militum'', "tribune of the soldiers") was an officer of the Roman army who ranked below the legatus, legate and above the centurion. Young men of Equestrian rank often served as military tribune as a stepping ...
.
[Taylor, 7] While it had the power to pass ordinary laws (''leges''), it rarely did so. The assembly known as the
Plebeian Council
The ''Concilium Plebis'' (English: Plebeian Council., Plebeian Assembly, People's Assembly or Council of the Plebs) was the principal assembly of the common people of the ancient Roman Republic. It functioned as a legislative/judicial assembly, ...
was identical to the Tribal Assembly with one key exception: only
plebeian
In ancient Rome, the plebeians (also called plebs) were the general body of free Roman citizens who were not patricians, as determined by the census, or in other words " commoners". Both classes were hereditary.
Etymology
The precise origins of ...
s (the commoners) had the power to vote before it. Members of the aristocratic
patrician
Patrician may refer to:
* Patrician (ancient Rome), the original aristocratic families of ancient Rome, and a synonym for "aristocratic" in modern English usage
* Patrician (post-Roman Europe), the governing elites of cities in parts of medieval ...
class were excluded from this assembly. In contrast, both classes were entitled to a vote in the Tribal Assembly. Under the presidency of a
Plebeian Tribune
Tribune of the plebs, tribune of the people or plebeian tribune ( la, tribunus plebis) was the first office of the Roman state that was open to the plebeians, and was, throughout the history of the Republic, the most important check on the power of ...
(the chief representative of the people), the Plebeian Council elected Plebeian Tribunes and
Plebeian Aediles
In ancient Rome, the plebeians (also called plebs) were the general body of free Roman citizens who were not patricians, as determined by the census, or in other words "commoners". Both classes were hereditary.
Etymology
The precise origins of ...
(the Plebeian Tribune's assistant), enacted laws called
plebiscite
A referendum (plural: referendums or less commonly referenda) is a direct vote by the electorate on a proposal, law, or political issue. This is in contrast to an issue being voted on by a representative. This may result in the adoption of a ...
s, and presided over judicial cases involving Plebeians. Originally, laws passed by the Plebeian Council only applied to Plebeians.
[Byrd, 31] However, by 287 BC, laws passed by the Plebeian Council had acquired the full force of law, and from that point on, most legislation came from the council.
Assemblies of the Roman Empire
The legislative assemblies of the Roman Empire were political institutions in the ancient
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire ( la, Imperium Romanum ; grc-gre, Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Basileía tôn Rhōmaíōn) was the post-Republican period of ancient Rome. As a polity, it included large territorial holdings around the Mediterr ...
. During the reign of the second
Roman Emperor,
Tiberius
Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (; 16 November 42 BC – 16 March AD 37) was the second Roman emperor. He reigned from AD 14 until 37, succeeding his stepfather, the first Roman emperor Augustus. Tiberius was born in Rome in 42 BC. His father ...
, the powers that had been held by the Roman assemblies were transferred to the
senate
A senate is a deliberative assembly, often the upper house or chamber of a bicameral legislature. The name comes from the ancient Roman Senate (Latin: ''Senatus''), so-called as an assembly of the senior (Latin: ''senex'' meaning "the el ...
. After the founding of the
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire ( la, Imperium Romanum ; grc-gre, Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Basileía tôn Rhōmaíōn) was the post-Republican period of ancient Rome. As a polity, it included large territorial holdings around the Mediterr ...
, the People of Rome continued to organize by Centuries and by Tribes, but by this point, these divisions had lost most of their relevance.
[Abbott, 397]
While the machinery of the
Centuriate Assembly
The Centuriate Assembly (Latin: ''comitia centuriata'') of the Roman Republic was one of the three voting assemblies in the Roman constitution. It was named the Centuriate Assembly as it originally divided Roman citizens into groups of one hundred ...
continued to exist well into the life of the empire,
the assembly lost all of its practical relevance. Under the empire, all gatherings of the Centuriate Assembly were in the form of an unsorted convention. Legislation was never submitted to the imperial Centuriate Assembly, and the one major legislative power that this assembly had held under the republic, the right to declare war, was now held exclusively by the emperor.
All judicial powers that had been held by the republican Centuriate Assembly were transferred to independent jury courts, and under the emperor
Tiberius
Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (; 16 November 42 BC – 16 March AD 37) was the second Roman emperor. He reigned from AD 14 until 37, succeeding his stepfather, the first Roman emperor Augustus. Tiberius was born in Rome in 42 BC. His father ...
, all of its former electoral powers were transferred to the senate.
After it had lost all of these powers, it had no remaining authority. Its only remaining function was, after the senate had 'elected' the magistrates, to hear the ''renuntiatio'',
The ''renuntiatio'' had no legal purpose, but instead was a ceremony in which the results of the election were read to the electors. This allowed the emperor to claim that the magistrates had been "elected" by a sovereign people.
In the early empire, the tribal divisions of citizens and freedmen continued, but the only political purpose of the tribal divisions was such that they better enabled the senate to maintain a list of citizens.
Tribal divisions also simplified the process by which grain was distributed.
Eventually, most ''freedmen'' belonged to one of the four urban Tribes, while most ''freemen'' belonged to one of the thirty-one rural Tribes.
Under the emperor Tiberius, the electoral powers of the
Tribal Assembly
The Tribal Assembly (''comitia populi tributa'') was an assembly consisting of all Roman citizens convened by tribes (''tribus'').
In the Roman Republic, citizens did not elect legislative representatives. Instead, they voted themselves on legisl ...
were transferred to the senate. Each year, after the senate had elected the annual magistrates, the Tribal Assembly also heard the ''renuntiatio''.
Any legislation that the emperor submitted to the assemblies for ratification were submitted to the Tribal Assembly.
The assembly ratified imperial decrees, starting with the emperor
Augustus
Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian, was the first Roman emperor; he reigned from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. He is known for being the founder of the Roman Pri ...
, and continuing until the emperor
Domitian
Domitian (; la, Domitianus; 24 October 51 – 18 September 96) was a Roman emperor who reigned from 81 to 96. The son of Vespasian and the younger brother of Titus, his two predecessors on the throne, he was the last member of the Flavi ...
. The ratification of legislation by the assembly, however, had no legal importance as the emperor could make any decree into law, even without the acquiescence of the assemblies. Thus, under the empire, the chief executive again became the chief lawgiver, which was a power he had not held since the days of the early republic.
The
Plebeian Council
The ''Concilium Plebis'' (English: Plebeian Council., Plebeian Assembly, People's Assembly or Council of the Plebs) was the principal assembly of the common people of the ancient Roman Republic. It functioned as a legislative/judicial assembly, ...
also survived the fall of the republic,
and it also lost its legislative, judicial and electoral powers to the senate. By virtue of his
tribunician powers, the emperor had absolute control over the council.
See also
Notes
References
* Abbott, Frank Frost (1901). ''A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions''. Elibron Classics ().
* Byrd, Robert (1995). ''The Senate of the Roman Republic''. U.S. Government Printing Office, Senate Document 103-23.
* Cicero, Marcus Tullius (1841). ''The Political Works of Marcus Tullius Cicero: Comprising his Treatise on the Commonwealth; and his Treatise on the Laws. Translated from the original, with Dissertations and Notes in Two Volumes''. By Francis Barham, Esq. London: Edmund Spettigue. Vol. 1.
*
Lintott, Andrew (1999). ''The Constitution of the Roman Republic''. Oxford University Press ().
* Polybius (1823). ''The General History of Polybius: Translated from the Greek''. By
James Hampton. Oxford: Printed by W. Baxter. Fifth Edition, Vol 2.
*
Taylor, Lily Ross (1966). ''Roman Voting Assemblies: From the Hannibalic War to the Dictatorship of Caesar''. The University of Michigan Press ().
Further reading
* Ihne, Wilhelm. ''Researches Into the History of the Roman Constitution''. William Pickering. 1853.
* Johnston, Harold Whetstone. ''Orations and Letters of Cicero: With Historical Introduction, An Outline of the Roman Constitution, Notes, Vocabulary and Index''. Scott, Foresman and Company. 1891.
* Mommsen, Theodor. ''Roman Constitutional Law''. 1871–1888
* Tighe, Ambrose. ''The Development of the Roman Constitution''. D. Apple & Co. 1886.
* Von Fritz, Kurt. ''The Theory of the Mixed Constitution in Antiquity''. Columbia University Press, New York. 1975.
* ''The Histories'' by
Polybius
Polybius (; grc-gre, Πολύβιος, ; ) was a Greek historian of the Hellenistic period. He is noted for his work , which covered the period of 264–146 BC and the Punic Wars in detail.
Polybius is important for his analysis of the mixed ...
* ''Cambridge Ancient History'', Volumes 9–13.
* A. Cameron, ''The Later Roman Empire'', (Fontana Press, 1993).
* M. Crawford, ''The Roman Republic'', (Fontana Press, 1978).
* E. S. Gruen, ''The Last Generation of the Roman Republic'' (U California Press, 1974)
* F. Millar, ''The Emperor in the Roman World'', (Duckworth, 1977, 1992).
* A. Lintott, ''The Constitution of the Roman Republic'' (Oxford University Press, 1999)
Primary sources
Cicero's ''De Re Publica'', Book Two
Secondary source material
*
ttps://web.archive.org/web/20080829134354/http://www.uah.edu/student_life/organizations/SAL/texts/misc/romancon.html The Roman Constitution to the Time of CiceroWhat a Terrorist Incident in Ancient Rome Can Teach UsAn extensive collection of digital books and articles on Roman Law and History, in various languages. By professor Luiz Gustavo Kaercher
External links
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Government of the Roman Empire
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