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''Rhodotorula'' is a
genus Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of extant taxon, living and fossil organisms as well as Virus classification#ICTV classification, viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus com ...
of pigmented
yeast Yeasts are eukaryotic, single-celled microorganisms classified as members of the fungus kingdom. The first yeast originated hundreds of millions of years ago, and at least 1,500 species are currently recognized. They are estimated to constitut ...
s, part of the division
Basidiomycota Basidiomycota () is one of two large divisions that, together with the Ascomycota, constitute the subkingdom Dikarya (often referred to as the "higher fungi") within the kingdom Fungi. Members are known as basidiomycetes. More specifically, Basi ...
. It is readily identifiable by distinctive orange/red
colonies In modern parlance, a colony is a territory subject to a form of foreign rule. Though dominated by the foreign colonizers, colonies remain separate from the administration of the original country of the colonizers, the '' metropolitan state'' ...
when grown on Sabouraud's dextrose agar (SDA). This distinctive color is the result of
pigment A pigment is a colored material that is completely or nearly insoluble in water. In contrast, dyes are typically soluble, at least at some stage in their use. Generally dyes are often organic compounds whereas pigments are often inorganic compo ...
s that the yeast creates to block out certain wavelengths of light (620–750 nm) that would otherwise be damaging to the cell.


Habitat

''Rhodotorula'' is a common environmental inhabitant. It can be cultured from soil, water, milk, fruit juice, and air samples. It is able to scavenge nitrogenous compounds from its environment remarkably well, growing even in air that has been carefully cleaned of any fixed nitrogen contaminants. In such conditions, the nitrogen content of the dry weight of ''Rhodotorula'' can drop as low as 1%, compared to around 14% for most bacteria growing in normal conditions.


Pathology

Only ''Rhodotorula mucilaginosa'', ''R. glutinis'', and ''R. minuta'' have been known to cause disease in humans. There were no reported cases of ''Rhodotorula'' infections before 1985. There were however forty-three reported cases of ''Rhodotorula'' bloodstream infections (BSIs) between 1960 and 2000. ''Rhodotorula'' is most commonly found in patients who are immunosuppressed and/or are using foreign-body technology such as central venous catheters. ''Rhodotorula'' is commonly treated by removing the catheter and the use of anti-fungals. ''Rhodotorula'' is susceptible to
amphotericin B Amphotericin B is an antifungal medication used for serious fungal infections and leishmaniasis. The fungal infections it is used to treat include mucormycosis, aspergillosis, blastomycosis, candidiasis, coccidioidomycosis, and cryptococcosis. Fo ...
and
flucytosine Flucytosine, also known as 5-fluorocytosine (5-FC), is an antifungal medication. It is specifically used, together with amphotericin B, for serious ''Candida'' infections and cryptococcosis. It may be used by itself or with other antifungals for ...
. ''Rhodotorula'' can also cause infections in animals. There have been reports of skin infections in chickens and sea animals and lung infections and
otitis Otitis is a general term for inflammation or infection, inner ear infection, middle ear infection of the ear, in both humans and other animals. When infection is present, it may be viral or bacterial. When inflammation is present due to fluid buil ...
in sheep and cattle.


Potential in bioremediation

One area in which ''Rhodotorula'' species may become of importance is in
bioremediation Bioremediation broadly refers to any process wherein a biological system (typically bacteria, microalgae, fungi, and plants), living or dead, is employed for removing environmental pollutants from air, water, soil, flue gasses, industrial effluent ...
, especially of contaminated water sites. As with bacteria, fungi can naturally develop modified metabolism to deal with environmental contaminants, and could then be used in bioremediation. One main target is often
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons A polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) is a class of organic compounds that is composed of multiple aromatic rings. The simplest representative is naphthalene, having two aromatic rings and the three-ring compounds anthracene and phenanthrene. P ...
(PAHs) since they often persist in the environment and have high levels of toxicity. Through sediment analysis and testing of contaminated waters ''Rhodotorula'' were found to be common in contaminated sites. It was noted in samples taken from contaminated waters that ''Rhodotorula'' species had the ability to degrade petroleum compounds. These studies as well as others suggest that ''Rhodotorula'' species may be good candidates for bioremediation of polluted waters for PAHs. In more directed studies a number of species of ''Rhodotorula'' were found to be able to degrade a number of specific contaminants. For example, ''R. glutinis'' and ''R. rubra'' have both been found to have a high ability to degrade
phenanthrene Phenanthrene is a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) with formula C14H10, consisting of three fused benzene rings. It is a colorless, crystal-like solid, but can also appear yellow. Phenanthrene is used to make dyes, plastics and pesticides, e ...
, while ''R. minuta'' has been found to degrade
benzo(a)anthracene Benz 'a''nthracene or benzo 'a''nthracene is a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon with the chemical formula C18H12. It is produced during incomplete combustion of organic matter. Benz 'a''nthracene is one of carcinogenic constituents of tobacco sm ...
. In a mixed fungal community ''Rhodotorula'' species contributed to effective degradation of low molecular weight PAHs, and although bacterial communities alone were not able to, the fungal communities also degraded high molecular weight PAHs (more than 3 benzene rings) such as
chrysene Chrysene is a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) with the molecular formula that consists of four fused benzene rings. It is a natural constituent of coal tar, from which it was first isolated and characterized. It is also found in creosote ...
and
benzo(a)pyrene Benzo 'a''yrene (B''a''P or B ) is a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon and the result of incomplete combustion of organic matter at temperatures between and . The ubiquitous compound can be found in coal tar, tobacco smoke and many foods, espec ...
. A strain of ''R. taiwanensis'' was shown to grow at constant gamma radiation 66 Gy/h at pH 2.3 and in the presence of high concentrations of mercury and chromium compounds, and forming biofilms under high-level chronic radiation and low pH, making it a promising candidate for bioremediation of acidic radioactive waste sites.


Species

*''
Rhodotorula acheniorum ''Rhodotorula'' is a genus of pigmented yeasts, part of the division Basidiomycota. It is readily identifiable by distinctive orange/red colonies when grown on Sabouraud's dextrose agar (SDA). This distinctive color is the result of pigments ...
'' *''
Rhodotorula acuta ''Rhodotorula'' is a genus of pigmented yeasts, part of the division Basidiomycota. It is readily identifiable by distinctive orange/red colonies when grown on Sabouraud's dextrose agar (SDA). This distinctive color is the result of pigments ...
'' *''
Rhodotorula araucariae ''Rhodotorula'' is a genus of pigmented yeasts, part of the division Basidiomycota. It is readily identifiable by distinctive orange/red colonies when grown on Sabouraud's dextrose agar (SDA). This distinctive color is the result of pigments ...
'' *''
Rhodotorula armeniaca ''Rhodotorula'' is a genus of pigmented yeasts, part of the division Basidiomycota. It is readily identifiable by distinctive orange/red colonies when grown on Sabouraud's dextrose agar (SDA). This distinctive color is the result of pigments ...
'' *''
Rhodotorula aurantiaca ''Rhodotorula'' is a genus of pigmented yeasts, part of the division Basidiomycota. It is readily identifiable by distinctive orange/red colonies when grown on Sabouraud's dextrose agar (SDA). This distinctive color is the result of pigments ...
'' *''
Rhodotorula auriculariae ''Rhodotorula'' is a genus of pigmented yeasts, part of the division Basidiomycota. It is readily identifiable by distinctive orange/red colonies when grown on Sabouraud's dextrose agar (SDA). This distinctive color is the result of pigments ...
'' *''
Rhodotorula bacarum ''Rhodotorula'' is a genus of pigmented yeasts, part of the division Basidiomycota. It is readily identifiable by distinctive orange/red colonies when grown on Sabouraud's dextrose agar (SDA). This distinctive color is the result of pigments ...
'' *''
Rhodotorula benthica ''Rhodotorula'' is a genus of pigmented yeasts, part of the division Basidiomycota. It is readily identifiable by distinctive orange/red colonies when grown on Sabouraud's dextrose agar (SDA). This distinctive color is the result of pigments ...
'' *''
Rhodotorula biourgei ''Rhodotorula'' is a genus of pigmented yeasts, part of the division Basidiomycota. It is readily identifiable by distinctive orange/red colonies when grown on Sabouraud's dextrose agar (SDA). This distinctive color is the result of pigments ...
'' *''
Rhodotorula bogoriensis ''Rhodotorula'' is a genus of pigmented yeasts, part of the division Basidiomycota. It is readily identifiable by distinctive orange/red colonies when grown on Sabouraud's dextrose agar (SDA). This distinctive color is the result of pigments ...
'' *'' Rhodotorula bronchialis'' *'' Rhodotorula buffonii'' *'' Rhodotorula calyptogenae'' *'' Rhodotorula cladiensis'' *'' Rhodotorula cresolica'' *'' Rhodotorula crocea'' *'' Rhodotorula cycloclastica'' *'' Rhodotorula dairenensis'' *'' Rhodotorula evergladiensis'' *'' Rhodotorula ferulica'' *'' Rhodotorula foliorum'' *'' Rhodotorula fragaria'' *'' Rhodotorula fujisanensis'' *'' Rhodotorula futronensis'' *'' Rhodotorula gelatinosa'' *'' Rhodotorula glacialis'' *''
Rhodotorula glutinis ''Rhodotorula glutinis'' is the type species of the genus ''Rhodotorula'', a basidiomycetous genus of pink yeasts which contains 370 species. Heterogeneity of the genus has made its classification difficult with five varieties having been recogn ...
'' *'' Rhodotorula gracilis'' *'' Rhodotorula graminis'' *'' Rhodotorula grinbergsii'' *'' Rhodotorula himalayensis'' *'' Rhodotorula hinnulea'' *'' Rhodotorula histolytica'' *'' Rhodotorula hylophila'' *'' Rhodotorula incarnata'' *'' Rhodotorula ingeniosa'' *'' Rhodotorula javanica'' *'' Rhodotorula koishikawensis'' *'' Rhodotorula lactosa'' *'' Rhodotorula lamellibrachiae'' *'' Rhodotorula laryngis'' *'' Rhodotorula lignophila'' *'' Rhodotorula lini'' *'' Rhodotorula longissima'' *'' Rhodotorula ludwigii'' *'' Rhodotorula lysinophila'' *'' Rhodotorula marina'' *'' Rhodotorula matritensis'' *'' Rhodotorula meli'' *'' Rhodotorula minuta'' *''
Rhodotorula mucilaginosa ''Rhodotorula'' is a genus of pigmented yeasts, part of the division Basidiomycota. It is readily identifiable by distinctive orange/red colonies when grown on Sabouraud's dextrose agar (SDA). This distinctive color is the result of pigments ...
'' *'' Rhodotorula nitens'' *'' Rhodotorula nothofagi'' *'' Rhodotorula oryzae'' *'' Rhodotorula pacifica'' *'' Rhodotorula pallida'' *'' Rhodotorula philyla'' *'' Rhodotorula pilimanae'' *'' Rhodotorula pinicola'' *'' Rhodotorula psychrophenolica'' *'' Rhodotorula psychrophila'' *'' Rhodotorula pustula'' *'' Rhodotorula retinophila'' *'' Rhodotorula rosulata'' *'' Rhodotorula rubra'' *'' Rhodotorula rubrorugosa'' *'' Rhodotorula silvestris'' *'' Rhodotorula sinensis'' *'' Rhodotorula slooffiae'' *'' Rhodotorula sonckii'' *'' Rhodotorula straminea'' *'' Rhodotorula subericola'' *'' Rhodotorula terpenoidalis'' *'' Rhodotorula terrea'' *'' Rhodotorula tokyoensis'' *'' Rhodotorula ulzamae'' *'' Rhodotorula vanillica'' *'' Rhodotorula vuilleminii'' *'' Rhodotorula yarrowii'' *'' Rhodotorula yunnanensis'' *'' Rhodotorula zsoltii''


References


External links


''Rhodotorula'' at the Dr. Fungus Website
{{Taxonbar, from=Q618432 Basidiomycota genera Teliomycotina Yeasts