''Qisas'' or ''Qiṣāṣ'' ( ar, قِصَاص, Qiṣāṣ, lit=accountability, following up after, pursuing or prosecuting) is an Islamic term interpreted to mean "retaliation in kind",Mohamed S. El-Awa (1993), Punishment In Islamic Law, American Trust Publications, " eye for an eye", or
retributive justice
Retributive justice is a theory of punishment that when an offender breaks the law, justice requires that they suffer in return, and that the response to a crime is proportional to the offence. As opposed to revenge, retribution—and thus retr ...
. In classical/traditional Islamic law (''
sharia
Sharia (; ar, شريعة, sharīʿa ) is a body of religious law that forms a part of the Islamic tradition. It is derived from the religious precepts of Islam and is based on the sacred scriptures of Islam, particularly the Quran and the H ...
''), the doctrine of qisas provides for a punishment analogous to the crime.
The principle of qisas in ancient societies meant that the person who committed a crime or the tribe he belonged to was punished in the same way as the crime committed. That is, an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth, an ear for an ear, and a life for a life. Since the ''principle of individual responsibility'' did not exist in ancient societies, someone else (such as his closest relative) could be punished instead of the criminal. Most time, it was ignored whether the act was a deliberate act, a life or ''blood cost'' was charged for each life.
The basis of this practice was that a member of the tribe to which the murderer belonged was handed over to the victim's family for execution, equivalent to the social status of the murdered person. The condition of ''social equivalence'' meant the execution of a member of the murderer's tribe who was equivalent to the murdered, in that the murdered person was male or female, slave or free, elite or commoner. For example, only one slave could be killed for a slave, and a woman for a woman. On this pre-Islamic understanding added a debate about whether a Muslim can be executed for a non-Muslim during the Islamic period.
The main verse for implementation in Islam is Al Baqara; 178 verse;
'': Believers! Retaliation is ordained for you regarding the people who were killed. Free versus free, captive versus captive, woman versus woman. Whoever is forgiven by the brother of the slain for a price, let him abide by the custom and pay the price well."
Qisas is available to the victim or victim's heirs against a convicted perpetrator of murder or intentional bodily injury. In the case of murder, qisas gives the right to take the life of the killer, if the latter is convicted and the court approves. Those who are entitled to ''qisas'' have the option of receiving monetary compensation (''
diyya
''Diya'' ( ar, دية; plural ''diyāt'', ar, ديات) in Islamic law, is the financial compensation paid to the victim or heirs of a victim in the cases of murder, bodily harm or property damage by mistake. It is an alternative punishment to ' ...
'') or granting pardon to the perpetrator instead.
Qisas and ''diyya'' are two of several forms of punishment in classical/traditional
Islamic criminal jurisprudence
Islamic criminal law ( ar, فقه العقوبات) is criminal law in accordance with Sharia. Strictly speaking, Islamic law does not have a distinct corpus of "criminal law". It divides crimes into three different categories depending on the ...
, the others being ''
Hudud
''Hudud'' (Arabic: ''Ḥudūd'', also transliterated ''hadud'', ''hudood''; plural of ''hadd'', ) is an Arabic word meaning "borders, boundaries, limits". In the religion of Islam it refers to punishments that under Islamic law ( sharīʿah) ar ...
'' and ''
Ta'zir
In Islamic Law, ''tazir'' (''ta'zeer'' or ''ta'zir'', ar, تعزير) refers to punishment for offenses at the discretion of the judge (Qadi) or ruler of the state.Quran
The Quran (, ; Standard Arabic: , Classical Arabic, Quranic Arabic: , , 'the recitation'), also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation in Islam, revelation from God in Islam, ...
is,
The
Qur'an
The Quran (, ; Standard Arabic: , Quranic Arabic: , , 'the recitation'), also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation from God. It is organized in 114 chapters (pl.: , sing. ...
allows the aggrieved party to receive monetary compensation (blood money, ''
diyya
''Diya'' ( ar, دية; plural ''diyāt'', ar, ديات) in Islamic law, is the financial compensation paid to the victim or heirs of a victim in the cases of murder, bodily harm or property damage by mistake. It is an alternative punishment to ' ...
'', ) instead of qisas, or forfeit the right of ''qiṣāṣ'' as an act of charity or in atonement for the victim family's past sins.
Hadith
The
Hadith
Ḥadīth ( or ; ar, حديث, , , , , , , literally "talk" or "discourse") or Athar ( ar, أثر, , literally "remnant"/"effect") refers to what the majority of Muslims believe to be a record of the words, actions, and the silent approval ...
s have extensive discussion of qisas. For example, Sahih Bukhari states,
Many premodern Islamic scholars ruled -- based on hadith -- that when the victim was a non-Muslim
dhimmi
' ( ar, ذمي ', , collectively ''/'' "the people of the covenant") or () is a historical term for non-Muslims living in an Islamic state with legal protection. The word literally means "protected person", referring to the state's obligatio ...
or a non-Muslim slave owned by a Muslim, only ''diya'' (blood money) and not ''qisas'' should be available as compensation.
History
A legal concept similar to Qisas is the principle of '' Eye for an eye'' first recorded in the
Code of Hammurabi
The Code of Hammurabi is a Babylonian legal text composed 1755–1750 BC. It is the longest, best-organised, and best-preserved legal text from the ancient Near East. It is written in the Old Babylonian dialect of Akkadian, purportedly by Hamm ...
.
The principle of retaliation in ancient societies meant that, the person who committed a crime or the tribe he belonged to would be punished in the same way as the crime committed. That is, an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth, an ear for an ear, and a life for a life. Since the principle of individual responsibility did not exist in ancient societies, someone else, such as his closest relative, could be punished instead of the criminal. Most of the time, no matter whether the killing was intentional or not, a life was taken for every life or blood price (Diyya) was paid.
Traditional jurisprudence
Classical/traditional Islamic jurisprudence (''
fiqh
''Fiqh'' (; ar, فقه ) is Islamic jurisprudence. Muhammad-> Companions-> Followers-> Fiqh.
The commands and prohibitions chosen by God were revealed through the agency of the Prophet in both the Quran and the Sunnah (words, deeds, and ...
'') treats homicide as a civil dispute between victim and perpetrator, rather than an act requiring corrective punishment by the state to maintain order. In all cases of murder, unintentional homicide, bodily injury and property damage, under classical/traditional Islamic law, the prosecutor is not the state, but only the victim or the victim's heir (or owner, in the case when the victim is a slave). Qisas can only be demanded by the victim or victim's heirs.
;Differences in treatment according to religion and status of victim
In the early history of Islam, there were considerable disagreements in Muslim
judicial opinion
A judicial opinion is a form of legal opinion written by a judge or a judicial panel in the course of resolving a legal dispute, providing the decision reached to resolve the dispute, and usually indicating the facts which led to the dispute an ...
s on applicability of Qisas and Diyya when a Muslim murdered a non-Muslim (
Dhimmi
' ( ar, ذمي ', , collectively ''/'' "the people of the covenant") or () is a historical term for non-Muslims living in an Islamic state with legal protection. The word literally means "protected person", referring to the state's obligatio ...
,
Musta'min
Mustaʾmīn or Musta'man ( ar, مستأمن) is a historical Islamic term for a non-Muslim foreigner temporarily residing in Muslim lands with and ''aman'' or guarantee of short-term safe-conduct ('' aman mu'aqqat'') affording the protected status ...
or slave). (In yet another class were murdered apostates from and blasphemers of Islam, non-Muslims who refused to accept dhimmi status, etc.)
According to classical jurists of three of the four
Sunni
Sunni Islam () is the largest branch of Islam, followed by 85–90% of the world's Muslims. Its name comes from the word '' Sunnah'', referring to the tradition of Muhammad. The differences between Sunni and Shia Muslims arose from a disagr ...
Islamic schools of jurisprudence --
Shafi'i
The Shafii ( ar, شَافِعِي, translit=Shāfiʿī, also spelled Shafei) school, also known as Madhhab al-Shāfiʿī, is one of the four major traditional schools of religious law (madhhab) in the Sunnī branch of Islam. It was founded by ...
,
Maliki
The ( ar, مَالِكِي) school is one of the four major schools of Islamic jurisprudence within Sunni Islam. It was founded by Malik ibn Anas in the 8th century. The Maliki school of jurisprudence relies on the Quran and hadiths as primary ...
and
Hanbali
The Hanbali school ( ar, ٱلْمَذْهَب ٱلْحَنۢبَلِي, al-maḏhab al-ḥanbalī) is one of the four major traditional Sunni schools (''madhahib'') of Islamic jurisprudence. It is named after the Arab scholar Ahmad ibn Hanbal ...
schools -- ''qisas'' is available only when the victim is Muslim; while the
Hanafi
The Hanafi school ( ar, حَنَفِية, translit=Ḥanafiyah; also called Hanafite in English), Hanafism, or the Hanafi fiqh, is the oldest and one of the four traditional major Sunni schools ( maddhab) of Islamic Law (Fiqh). It is named aft ...
school holds it may apply in some circumstances when a Muslim has done harm to a non-Muslim.Majid Khadduri and Herbert J. Liebesny, Law in the Middle East: Origin and Development of Islamic Law, 2nd Edition, Lawbook Exchange, , pp. 337-345Rudolph Peters and Peri Bearman (2014), The Ashgate Research Companion to Islamic Law, , pp. 169-170J. Norman D. Anderson (2007), Islamic Law in Africa, Routledge, , pp. 372-373
Jurists agree neither Qisas nor any other form of compensation applied in cases where the victim is
*an
apostate
Apostasy (; grc-gre, ἀποστασία , 'a defection or revolt') is the formal disaffiliation from, abandonment of, or renunciation of a religion by a person. It can also be defined within the broader context of embracing an opinion that ...
(converted from Islam to another religion),
*a person who has committed the
hadd
''Hudud'' (Arabic: ''Ḥudūd'', also transliterated ''hadud'', ''hudood''; plural of ''hadd'', ) is an Arabic word meaning "borders, boundaries, limits". In the religion of Islam it refers to punishments that under Islamic law (sharīʿah) are ...
crime of transgression against Islam or Imam (''baghy''), or
*a non-Muslim who did not accept himself or herself as a
Dhimmi
' ( ar, ذمي ', , collectively ''/'' "the people of the covenant") or () is a historical term for non-Muslims living in an Islamic state with legal protection. The word literally means "protected person", referring to the state's obligatio ...
, or
*if the non-Muslim victim's family could not prove that the victim used to pay
Jizya
Jizya ( ar, جِزْيَة / ) is a per capita yearly taxation historically levied in the form of financial charge on dhimmis, that is, permanent Kafir, non-Muslim subjects of a state governed by Sharia, Islamic law. The jizya tax has been unde ...
.Yohanan Friedmann (2006), Tolerance and Coercion in Islam: Interfaith Relations in the Muslim Tradition, Cambridge University Press, , pp. 42-50Richard Terrill (2012), World Criminal Justice Systems: A Comparative Survey, Routledge, , pp. 554-562
Numerous Hanafi, Shafi'i and Maliki jurists stated that a Muslim and a non-Muslim are neither equal nor of same status under sharia, and thus the judicial process and punishment applicable must vary.
This was justified by the hadith:Anver M. Emon (2012), Religious Pluralism and Islamic Law: Dhimmis and Others in the Empire of Law, Oxford University Press, , pp. 237-250
;Hanafi
The Hanafi school ordains lesser-than-murder ''qisas'' across religions, whether the perpetrator is Muslim or non-Muslim, according to Sayyid Sabiq's Fiqh Sunnah.
Most Hanafi scholars ruled that, if a Muslim killed a dhimmi or a slave, Qisas (retaliation) was applicable against the Muslim, but this could be averted by paying a Diyya.Rudolph Peters and Peri Bearman (2014), The Ashgate Research Companion to Islamic Law, , pp. 129-137 In one case, the Hanafi jurist
Abu Yusuf
Ya'qub ibn Ibrahim al-Ansari () better known as Abu Yusuf ( ar, أبو يوسف, Abū Yūsuf) (d.798) was a student of jurist Abu Hanifa (d.767) who helped spread the influence of the Hanafi school of Sharia, Islamic law through his writings and ...
initially ordered Qisas when a Muslim killed a dhimmi, but under Caliph
Harun al-Rashid
Abu Ja'far Harun ibn Muhammad al-Mahdi ( ar
, أبو جعفر هارون ابن محمد المهدي) or Harun ibn al-Mahdi (; or 766 – 24 March 809), famously known as Harun al-Rashid ( ar, هَارُون الرَشِيد, translit=Hārūn ...
's pressure replaced the order with Diyya if the victim's family members were unable to prove the victim was paying
jizya
Jizya ( ar, جِزْيَة / ) is a per capita yearly taxation historically levied in the form of financial charge on dhimmis, that is, permanent Kafir, non-Muslim subjects of a state governed by Sharia, Islamic law. The jizya tax has been unde ...
willingly as a dhimmi. According to Fatawa-e-Alamgiri, a 17th-century compilation of Hanafi fiqh in South Asia, a master who kills his slave should not face capital punishment under the retaliation doctrine.SC Sircar, , pp. 276-278
If a Muslim or a dhimmi killed a Musta'min (foreigner visiting) who did not enjoy permanent protection in
Dar al-Islam
In classical Islamic law, the major divisions are ''dar al-Islam'' (lit. territory of Islam/voluntary submission to God), denoting regions where Islamic law prevails, ''dar al-sulh'' (lit. territory of treaty) denoting non-Islamic lands which have ...
and might take up arms against Muslims after returning to his homeland (dar al-harb), neither Qisas nor Diyya applied against the Musta'min's murderer according to Hanafi fiqh according to Yohanan Friedmann.
;Non-Hanafi
Non-Hanafi jurists have historically ruled that Qisas does not apply against a Muslim, if he murders any non-Muslim (including dhimmi) or a slave for any reason. Instead, the schools impose ''
Diyya
''Diya'' ( ar, دية; plural ''diyāt'', ar, ديات) in Islamic law, is the financial compensation paid to the victim or heirs of a victim in the cases of murder, bodily harm or property damage by mistake. It is an alternative punishment to ' ...
'' on the perpetrator.
Both Shafi'i and Maliki fiqh doctrines maintained that the Qisas only applies when there is "the element of equality between the perpetrator and the victim", according to scholar Yohanan Friedmann. Since "equality does not exist between a Muslim and an infidel, ecauseMuslims are exalted above the infidels", Qisas is not available to an
infidel
An infidel (literally "unfaithful") is a person accused of disbelief in the central tenets of one's own religion, such as members of another religion, or the irreligious.
Infidel is an ecclesiastical term in Christianity around which the Church ...
victim when the crime's perpetrator is a Muslim.
In
Shafi'i
The Shafii ( ar, شَافِعِي, translit=Shāfiʿī, also spelled Shafei) school, also known as Madhhab al-Shāfiʿī, is one of the four major traditional schools of religious law (madhhab) in the Sunnī branch of Islam. It was founded by ...
fiqh, this inequality was also expressed in Diyya compensation payment to the heirs of a dhimmi victim's which should be a third of what would be due in case the victim was a Muslim. In Maliki fiqh, compensation for a non-Muslim in the case of unintentional killing, bodily or property damage should be half of what would be due for an equivalent damage to a Muslim.
Maliki
The ( ar, مَالِكِي) school is one of the four major schools of Islamic jurisprudence within Sunni Islam. It was founded by Malik ibn Anas in the 8th century. The Maliki school of jurisprudence relies on the Quran and hadiths as primary ...
fiqh does made an exception to the ban on applying ''Qisas'' against a Muslim when their victim is a dhimmi in cases where the murder of the dhimmi is treacherous in nature.
According to
Hanbali
The Hanbali school ( ar, ٱلْمَذْهَب ٱلْحَنۢبَلِي, al-maḏhab al-ḥanbalī) is one of the four major traditional Sunni schools (''madhahib'') of Islamic jurisprudence. It is named after the Arab scholar Ahmad ibn Hanbal ...
legal school, if a Muslim kills or harms a non-Muslim, even if intentionally, ''Qisas'' does not apply, and the sharia court may only impose a
Diyya
''Diya'' ( ar, دية; plural ''diyāt'', ar, ديات) in Islamic law, is the financial compensation paid to the victim or heirs of a victim in the cases of murder, bodily harm or property damage by mistake. It is an alternative punishment to ' ...
(monetary compensation) with or without a prison term on the Muslim at its discretion.
Current practice
''Qiṣāṣ'' is currently provided for by legal systems of several countries which apply classical/traditional Islamic jurisprudence (Saudi Arabia) or have enacted qisas laws as part of modern legal reforms.
Iran
Iran
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...
's penal code includes Qisas as a method of punishment, spelled out in sections 1 through 80 of the code. The penal code outlines two types of Qisas crime - Qisas for when a life has been lost, and Qisas when a part of a human body has been lost.Shahid M. Shahidullah, Comparative Criminal Justice Systems: Global and Local Perspectives, pp. 425 426 In cases of qisas for life, the victim's family may with the permission of court, take the life of the murderer. In cases of qisas for part of a human body, section 55 of Iran's penal code grants the victim or victim's family to inflict an equal injury to the perpetrator's body, provided they are given permission by the court. (The code also spells out what to do in different circumstances. If the victim lost the right hand and perpetrator does not have a right hand for qisas, for example, then with court's permission, the victim may cut the left hand of the perpetrator.)
In one episode, ''qiṣāṣ'' was demanded by Ameneh Bahrami, an Iranian woman blinded in an acid attack. She demanded that her attacker Majiv Movahedi be blinded as well. In 2011, Bahrami retracted her demand on the day the sentence was to be carried out, requesting instead that her attacker be pardoned.
A prisoner lodged in the Gohardasht Prison of the city of
Karaj
Karaj ( fa, کرج, ) is the capital of Alborz Province, Iran, and effectively a satellite city of Tehran. Although the county hosts a population around 1.97 million, as recorded in the 2016 census, most of the county is rugged mountain. The urb ...
, was reported to have been blinded in March 2015 after being convicted for an acid attack on another man in 2009 and sentenced to the punishment under "qisas".
Cases where qisas has been sentenced as a punishment, but the sentence not (as of November 2021) yet carried out, include:
*the October 2021 sentencing a 45-year-old man to forced blinding by a Criminal Court in Tehran after his neighbor lost his right eye as a result of a fight with the man in June 2018;
*the February 2021 sentencing to amputation (and other punishment) of a man in Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari province in southwestern Iran, as a result of injuring a state environmental agent;
*the May 2020 sentence of blinding in both eyes of a 30-year-old woman in northeastern Iran who had blinded a man by throwing acid in his face.
Pakistan
Pakistan
Pakistan ( ur, ), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan ( ur, , label=none), is a country in South Asia. It is the world's List of countries and dependencies by population, fifth-most populous country, with a population of almost 24 ...
introduced Qisas and Diyat in 1990 as ''Criminal Law (Second Amendment) Ordinance'', after the Shariat Appellate Bench of the
Supreme Court of Pakistan
The Supreme Court of Pakistan ( ur, ; ''Adālat-e-Uzma Pākistān'') is the apex court in the judicial hierarchy of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan.
Established in accordance to thePart VIIof the Constitution of Pakistan, it has ultimate a ...
declared that the lack of Qisas and Diyat were repugnant to the injunctions of Islam as laid down by the Quran and Sunnah. Pakistani parliament enacted the law of Qisas and Diyat as ''Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 1997''. An offender may still be punished despite pardoning by way of ta'zīr or if not all the persons entitled to Qisas joined in the compromise. The Pakistan Penal Code modernized the Hanafi doctrine of ''qisas'' and ''diya'' by eliminating distinctions between Muslims and non-Muslims.
Nigeria
Since the 1960s, several northern states of Nigeria have enacted sharia-based criminal laws, including provisions for Qisas. These codes have been applied in the Sharia Courts of Nigeria to Muslims. Many have been sentenced to retaliation under the Qisas principle, as well as to other punishments such as hudud and tazir.
Saudi Arabia
Murder and manslaughter are private offenses in Saudi Arabia, which a victim or victim's heirs must prosecute, or accept monetary compensation, or grant pardon. The sharia courts in Saudi Arabia apply Qisas to juvenile cases,The age limit is not effectively enforced, and the court can assess a child defendant's physical characteristics to decide if he or she should be tried as an adult. In most cases, a person who satisfies at least one of the following four characteristics is considered as an adult for Qisas cases: (1) above the age of 15, (2) has wet dreams (''al-ihtilam''), (3) any appearance of pubic hair, or (4) start of menstruation. Qisas principle, when enforced in Saudi Arabia, means equal retaliation and damage on the defendant.Human Rights Watch (2008), The Last Holdouts, Juvenile Death Penalty in Iran, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Pakistan and Yemen, , pp. 7-9 Archived summary /ref>
According to reports in Saudi media, in 2013, a court in Saudi Arabia sentenced a defendant to have his spinal cord severed to paralyze him, unless he paid one million Saudi riyals (about US$270,000) in Diyya compensation to the victim. The offender allegedly stabbed his friend in the back, rendering him paralysed from the waist down in or around 2003. Other reported sentences of qisas in KSA have included eye gouging, tooth extraction, and death in cases of murder.
Qisas and honor crimes
According to most variations of Islamic Law, Qisas doesn't apply if a Muslim parent or grandparent kills their child or grandchild, or if the murder victim is a spouse with whom one has surviving children. The culprit can be, however, subject to Diyya (financial compensation) which is payable to the surviving heirs of the victims or punished through
Tazir
In Islamic Law, ''tazir'' (''ta'zeer'' or ''ta'zir'', ar, تعزير) refers to punishment for offenses at the discretion of the judge (Qadi) or ruler of the state. The Hanafi, Hanbali and Shafi'i sharia extend this principle to cases when the victim is a child and the mother or grandparents are the murderers.Al-Misri (Translated by Nuh Ha Mim Keller),
Reliance of the Traveller
Umdat as-Salik wa 'Uddat an-Nasik (''Reliance of the Traveller and Tools of the Worshipper'', also commonly known by its shorter title ''Reliance of the Traveller'') is a classical manual of fiqh for the Shafi'i school of Islamic jurisprudence. ...
, , Ruling O:1.2, Quote: "The following are not subject to retaliation: (2) a Muslim for killing a non-Muslim; (4) a father or mother (or their fathers or mothers) for killing their offpsring, or offspring's offpsring; (5) nor is retaliation permissible to a descendant such as when his father kills his mother"
Some suggest that this exemption of parents and relatives from Qisas, and the treatment of homicide-related Qisas as a civil dispute that should be handled privately by victim's family under sharia doctrine, encourages
honor crime
An honor killing (American English), honour killing (Commonwealth English), or shame killing is the murder of an individual, either an outsider or a member of a family, by someone seeking to protect what they see as the dignity and honor of t ...
s, particularly against females, as well as allows the murderer(s) to go unpunished.Hannah Irfan (2008), Honor Related Violence Against Women in Pakistan, World Justice Forum, Vienna July 2–5, pp. 9-12 This, state Devers and Bacon, is why many honor crimes are not reported to the police, nor handled in the public arena. However, if the killer was proven to have accused the victim of adultery, a
false accusation of rape
A false accusation of rape happens when a person states that they or another person have been raped when no rape has occurred.
Although some studies attempt to characterize the prevalence of false accusation of rape, according to a 2013 book o ...
case can be raised and the sentence carried out. Furthermore, relations between the Islamic law and honor killing might be somewhat off since the tradition of honor killings also occurs and encouraged in non-Muslim world, even the Western one. Historically, Sharia did not stipulate any capital punishment against the accused when the victim is the child of the murderer, but in modern times some Sharia-based Muslim countries have introduced laws that grant courts the discretion to impose imprisonment of the murderer. However, the victim's heirs have the right to waive Qisas, seek Diyat, or pardon the killer.Shahid M. Shahidullah (2012), Comparative Criminal Justice Systems: Global and Local Perspectives, , pp. 511
See also
*
Sabr
The Society for American Baseball Research (SABR) is a membership organization dedicated to fostering the research and dissemination of the history and record of baseball primarily through the use of statistics. Established in Cooperstown, New ...
*
Sharia
Sharia (; ar, شريعة, sharīʿa ) is a body of religious law that forms a part of the Islamic tradition. It is derived from the religious precepts of Islam and is based on the sacred scriptures of Islam, particularly the Quran and the H ...
*
Hudud
''Hudud'' (Arabic: ''Ḥudūd'', also transliterated ''hadud'', ''hudood''; plural of ''hadd'', ) is an Arabic word meaning "borders, boundaries, limits". In the religion of Islam it refers to punishments that under Islamic law ( sharīʿah) ar ...
*
Tazir
In Islamic Law, ''tazir'' (''ta'zeer'' or ''ta'zir'', ar, تعزير) refers to punishment for offenses at the discretion of the judge (Qadi) or ruler of the state.Diyya
''Diya'' ( ar, دية; plural ''diyāt'', ar, ديات) in Islamic law, is the financial compensation paid to the victim or heirs of a victim in the cases of murder, bodily harm or property damage by mistake. It is an alternative punishment to ' ...
*
Application of sharia law by country
Since the early Islamic states of the eighth and ninth centuries, Sharia always existed alongside other normative systems.
Historically, sharia was interpreted by independent jurists (muftis), based on Islamic scriptural sources and various legal ...