Respiratory epithelium, or airway epithelium, is a type of
ciliated columnar epithelium
Simple columnar epithelium is a single layer of columnar Epithelium#Cell types, epithelial cells which are tall and slender with oval-shaped Cell nucleus, nuclei located in the basal region, attached to the basement membrane. In humans, simple c ...
found lining most of the
respiratory tract
The respiratory tract is the subdivision of the respiratory system involved with the process of respiration in mammals. The respiratory tract is lined with respiratory epithelium as respiratory mucosa.
Air is breathed in through the nose to th ...
as respiratory mucosa, where it serves to moisten and protect the airways. It is not present in the
vocal cords
In humans, vocal cords, also known as vocal folds or voice reeds, are folds of throat tissues that are key in creating sounds through vocalization. The size of vocal cords affects the pitch of voice. Open when breathing and vibrating for speech ...
of the
larynx
The larynx (), commonly called the voice box, is an organ in the top of the neck involved in breathing, producing sound and protecting the trachea against food aspiration. The opening of larynx into pharynx known as the laryngeal inlet is about ...
, or the
oropharynx
The pharynx (plural: pharynges) is the part of the throat behind the mouth and nasal cavity, and above the oesophagus and trachea (the tubes going down to the stomach and the lungs). It is found in vertebrates and invertebrates, though its struct ...
and
laryngopharynx
The pharynx (plural: pharynges) is the part of the throat behind the mouth and nasal cavity, and above the oesophagus and trachea (the tubes going down to the stomach and the lungs). It is found in vertebrates and invertebrates, though its struc ...
, where instead the
epithelium
Epithelium or epithelial tissue is one of the four basic types of animal tissue, along with connective tissue, muscle tissue and nervous tissue. It is a thin, continuous, protective layer of compactly packed cells with a little intercellul ...
is
stratified squamous
A stratified squamous epithelium consists of squamous (flattened) epithelial cells arranged in layers upon a basal membrane. Only one layer is in contact with the basement membrane; the other layers adhere to one another to maintain structural in ...
.
It also functions as a barrier to potential pathogens and foreign particles, preventing infection and tissue injury by the secretion of
mucus
Mucus ( ) is a slippery aqueous secretion produced by, and covering, mucous membranes. It is typically produced from cells found in mucous glands, although it may also originate from mixed glands, which contain both serous and mucous cells. It is ...
and the action of
mucociliary clearance
Mucociliary clearance (MCC), mucociliary transport, or the mucociliary escalator, describes the self-clearing mechanism of the airways in the respiratory system. It is one of the two protective processes for the lungs in removing inhaled particl ...
.
Structure
![Respiratory Tract Cells](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Respiratory_Tract_Cells.png)
The respiratory epithelium lining the upper respiratory airways is classified as
ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium. This designation is due to the arrangement of the multiple cell types composing the respiratory epithelium. While all cells make contact with the
basement membrane
The basement membrane is a thin, pliable sheet-like type of extracellular matrix that provides cell and tissue support and acts as a platform for complex signalling. The basement membrane sits between Epithelium, epithelial tissues including mesot ...
and are, therefore, a single layer of cells, their nuclei are not aligned in the same plane. Hence, it appears as though several layers of cells are present and the epithelium is called ''
pseudostratified'' (falsely layered). The respiratory mucosa transitions to simple ciliated cuboidal epithelium and finally to
simple squamous epithelium
A simple squamous epithelium, also known as pavement epithelium, and tessellated epithelium is a single layer of flattened, polygonal cells in contact with the basal lamina (one of the two layers of the basement membrane) of the epithelium. This ...
in the
alveolar duct
A pulmonary alveolus (plural: alveoli, from Latin ''alveolus'', "little cavity"), also known as an air sac or air space, is one of millions of hollow, distensible cup-shaped cavities in the lungs where oxygen is exchanged for carbon dioxide. Al ...
s and
alveoli Alveolus (; pl. alveoli, adj. alveolar) is a general anatomical term for a concave cavity or pit.
Uses in anatomy and zoology
* Pulmonary alveolus, an air sac in the lungs
** Alveolar cell or pneumocyte
** Alveolar duct
** Alveolar macrophage
* ...
.
Cells
The cells in the respiratory epithelium are of five main types: a)
ciliated cells, b)
goblet cells
Goblet cells are simple columnar epithelial cells that secrete gel-forming mucins, like mucin 5AC. The goblet cells mainly use the merocrine method of secretion, secreting vesicles into a duct, but may use apocrine methods, budding off their secre ...
, c) brush cells, d)
airway basal cell Airway basal cells are found deep in the respiratory epithelium, attached to, and lining the basement membrane.
Basal cells are the stem cells or progenitors of the airway epithelium and can cellular differentiation, differentiate to replenish all ...
s, and e) small granule cells (NDES) Goblet cells become increasingly fewer further down the respiratory tree until they are absent in the terminal bronchioles; club cells take over their role to some extent here.
Another important cell type is the
pulmonary neuroendocrine cell
Neuroendocrine cells are cells that receive neuronal input (through neurotransmitters released by nerve cells or neurosecretory cells) and, as a consequence of this input, release messenger molecules (hormones) into the blood. In this way they bri ...
. These are innervated cells that only make up around 0.5% of the respiratory epithelial cells.
The ciliated cells are
columnar epithelial cell
Epithelium or epithelial tissue is one of the four basic types of animal tissue, along with connective tissue, muscle tissue and nervous tissue. It is a thin, continuous, protective layer of compactly packed cells with a little intercellula ...
s with specialized ciliary modifications. The ciliated cells make up between 50 and 80 per cent of the epithelium.
Between the ciliated cells are numerous
microvilli
Microvilli (singular: microvillus) are microscopic cellular membrane protrusions that increase the surface area for diffusion and minimize any increase in volume, and are involved in a wide variety of functions, including absorption, secretion, ...
, attached as tufts to brush cells sometimes referred to as pulmonary brush cells;
these are also known as the
tuft cell
Tuft cells are chemosensory cells in the epithelial lining of the intestines. Similar tufted cells are found in the respiratory epithelium where they are known as brush cells. The name "tuft" refers to the brush-like microvilli projecting from t ...
s of the
gastrointestinal tract
The gastrointestinal tract (GI tract, digestive tract, alimentary canal) is the tract or passageway of the digestive system that leads from the mouth to the anus. The GI tract contains all the major organ (biology), organs of the digestive syste ...
, or intestinal tuft cells,
although there is a difference between the two types: the brush cells lack the
terminal web
The terminal web is a filamentous structure found at the apical surface of epithelial cells that possess microvilli. It is composed primarily of actin filaments stabilized by spectrin, which also anchors the terminal web to the apical cell membran ...
that lies under the microvilli of the tuft cells.
Although their function is not yet fully understood, it has been suggested that they exhibit a virulence associated clearance role, activating mucociliary clearance by releasing
acetylcholine
Acetylcholine (ACh) is an organic chemical that functions in the brain and body of many types of animals (including humans) as a neurotransmitter. Its name is derived from its chemical structure: it is an ester of acetic acid and choline. Part ...
.
Function
The respiratory epithelium functions to moisten and protect the airways. It acts as a physical barrier to pathogens, as well as their removal in the mechanism of
mucociliary clearance
Mucociliary clearance (MCC), mucociliary transport, or the mucociliary escalator, describes the self-clearing mechanism of the airways in the respiratory system. It is one of the two protective processes for the lungs in removing inhaled particl ...
.
The ciliated cells are the primary components in the mucociliary clearance mechanism. Each epithelial cell has around 200
cilia
The cilium, plural cilia (), is a membrane-bound organelle found on most types of eukaryotic cell, and certain microorganisms known as ciliates. Cilia are absent in bacteria and archaea. The cilium has the shape of a slender threadlike projecti ...
that beat constantly at a rate of between 10 and 20 times per second. The direction of their beat is targeted towards the
pharynx
The pharynx (plural: pharynges) is the part of the throat behind the mouth and nasal cavity, and above the oesophagus and trachea (the tubes going down to the stomach and the lungs). It is found in vertebrates and invertebrates, though its struc ...
, either upwards from the lower respiratory tract or downwards from the nasal structures.
Goblet cells
Goblet cells are simple columnar epithelial cells that secrete gel-forming mucins, like mucin 5AC. The goblet cells mainly use the merocrine method of secretion, secreting vesicles into a duct, but may use apocrine methods, budding off their secre ...
, so named because they are shaped like a wine goblet, are
columnar epithelial cell
Epithelium or epithelial tissue is one of the four basic types of animal tissue, along with connective tissue, muscle tissue and nervous tissue. It is a thin, continuous, protective layer of compactly packed cells with a little intercellula ...
s that contain membrane-bound mucous granules and secrete
mucus
Mucus ( ) is a slippery aqueous secretion produced by, and covering, mucous membranes. It is typically produced from cells found in mucous glands, although it may also originate from mixed glands, which contain both serous and mucous cells. It is ...
as part of the
airway surface liquid
Mucus ( ) is a slippery aqueous secretion produced by, and covering, mucous membranes. It is typically produced from cells found in mucous glands, although it may also originate from mixed glands, which contain both serous and mucous cells. It is ...
(ASL), also known as the ''epithelial lining fluid'', the composition of which is tightly regulated; the mucus helps maintain epithelial moisture and traps particulate material and pathogens moving through the airway. and determines how well mucociliary clearance works.
[Stanke F The Contribution of the Airway Epithelial Cell to Host Defense. Mediators Inflamm. 2015;2015:463016.]
PMC 4491388
/ref>[U.S. EPA. Integrated Science Assessment for Oxides of Nitrogen – Health Criteria (2016 Final Report). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, EPA/600/R-15/068, 2016]
Federal Register Notice Jan 28, 2016
Free download available a
Report page at EPA website
The basal cells
The ''stratum basale'' (basal layer, sometimes referred to as ''stratum germinativum'') is the deepest layer of the five layers of the epidermis, the external covering of skin in mammals.
The ''stratum basale'' is a single layer of columnar o ...
are small, nearly cuboidal
Epithelium or epithelial tissue is one of the four basic types of animal tissue, along with connective tissue, muscle tissue and nervous tissue. It is a thin, continuous, protective layer of compactly packed cells with a little intercellu ...
that differentiate into the other cell types found within the epithelium. Basal cells respond to injury of the airway epithelium, migrating to cover a site denuded of differentiated epithelial cells, and subsequently differentiating to restore a healthy epithelial cell layer. The differentiated epithelial cells can also dedifferentiate into stem cells and contribute to the repairing of the barrier.
Club cell
Club cells, also known as bronchiolar exocrine cells, and formerly known as Clara cells, are low columnar/cuboidal cells with short microvilli, found in the small airways ( bronchioles) of the lungs.
Club cells are found in the ciliated simple e ...
s carry out similar functions in the more distal airways.
Certain parts of the respiratory tract
The respiratory tract is the subdivision of the respiratory system involved with the process of respiration in mammals. The respiratory tract is lined with respiratory epithelium as respiratory mucosa.
Air is breathed in through the nose to th ...
, such as the oropharynx
The pharynx (plural: pharynges) is the part of the throat behind the mouth and nasal cavity, and above the oesophagus and trachea (the tubes going down to the stomach and the lungs). It is found in vertebrates and invertebrates, though its struct ...
, are also subject to the abrasive swallowing of food. To prevent the destruction of the epithelium in these areas, it changes to stratified squamous epithelium
A stratified squamous epithelium consists of squamous (flattened) epithelial cells arranged in layers upon a basal membrane. Only one layer is in contact with the basement membrane; the other layers adhere to one another to maintain structural i ...
, which is better suited to the constant sloughing
In biology, moulting (British English), or molting (American English), also known as sloughing, shedding, or in many invertebrates, ecdysis, is the manner in which an animal routinely casts off a part of its body (often, but not always, an outer ...
and abrasion. The squamous layer of the oropharynx is continuous with the esophagus
The esophagus (American English) or oesophagus (British English; both ), non-technically known also as the food pipe or gullet, is an organ in vertebrates through which food passes, aided by peristaltic contractions, from the pharynx to the ...
.
The respiratory epithelium has a further role of immunity for the lungs - that of glucose
Glucose is a simple sugar with the molecular formula . Glucose is overall the most abundant monosaccharide, a subcategory of carbohydrates. Glucose is mainly made by plants and most algae during photosynthesis from water and carbon dioxide, using ...
homeostasis
In biology, homeostasis (British English, British also homoeostasis) Help:IPA/English, (/hɒmɪə(ʊ)ˈsteɪsɪs/) is the state of steady internal, physics, physical, and chemistry, chemical conditions maintained by organism, living systems. Thi ...
. The glucose concentration in the airway surface liquid is held at a level of around 12 times lower than that of the blood sugar concentration. The tight junctions act as a barrier that restricts the passage of glucose across the epithelium into the airway lumen. Some glucose passes through, where it diffuses into the airway surface liquid to be kept at its reduced level by pulmonary glucose transport, and metabolism. However, airway inflammation decreases the effectiveness of the tight junctions making the barrier more permeable to glucose. Higher levels of glucose promote the proliferation of bacteria by providing glucose as a source for carbon for them. Increased levels of glucose in the airway surface liquid is associated with respiratory diseases, and hyperglycemia
Hyperglycemia is a condition in which an excessive amount of glucose circulates in the blood plasma. This is generally a blood sugar level higher than 11.1 mmol/L (200 mg/dL), but symptoms may not start to become noticeable until even ...
.
Clinical significance
Long-term irritation of the epithelial cells can cause the overproduction of mucus, known as mucus hypersecretion
Mucus ( ) is a slippery aqueous secretion produced by, and covering, mucous membranes. It is typically produced from cells found in mucous glands, although it may also originate from mixed glands, which contain both serous and mucous cells. It is ...
. Mucus hypersecretion results in the productive cough of chronic bronchitis
Bronchitis is inflammation of the bronchi (large and medium-sized airways) in the lungs that causes coughing. Bronchitis usually begins as an infection in the nose, ears, throat, or sinuses. The infection then makes its way down to the bronchi. ...
.
Pulmonary neuroendocrine cells have been associated with a range of chronic lung disorders. They are also the originating cells of small-cell lung cancer
Small-cell carcinoma is a type of highly malignant cancer that most commonly arises within the lung, although it can occasionally arise in other body sites, such as the cervix, prostate, and gastrointestinal tract. Compared to non-small cell car ...
.
References
Additional images
2304 Pseudostratified Epithelium.jpg, Cross-section of pseudostratified columnar epithelium
2308 The Trachea-b.jpg, Second cross-section
External links
{{Authority control
Respiratory system
Epithelium