There are many religious views on euthanasia, although many moral theologians are critical of the procedure.

Buddhism

There are many views among Buddhists on the issue of euthanasia, but many are critical of the procedure. An important value of Buddhism teaching is compassion. Some Buddhists use compassion to justify euthanasia because the person suffering is relieved of pain.Keown, Damien. “End of life: the Buddhist View,” Lancet 366 (2005): 953. SocINDEX with full text, EBSCOhost. However, it is still immoral "to embark on any course of action whose aim is to destroy human life, irrespective of the quality of the individual's motive." In

Theravada Buddhism ''Theravāda'' () ( si, ථේරවාදය, my, ထေရဝါဒ, th, เถรวาท, km, ថេរវាទ, lo, ເຖຣະວາດ, pi, , ) is the most commonly accepted name of Buddhism's oldest existing school. The school' ...

, a

lay person In religious organizations, the laity () consists of all members who are not part of the clergy, usually including any non-ordained members of religious orders, e.g. a nun or a lay brother. In both religious and wider secular usage, a layperson ...

daily recites the simple formula: "I undertake the precept to abstain from destroying living beings." For Buddhist monastics (''

bhikkhu A ''bhikkhu'' (Pali: भिक्खु, Sanskrit: भिक्षु, ''bhikṣu'') is an ordained male in Buddhist monasticism. Male and female monastics ("nun", ''bhikkhunī'', Sanskrit ''bhikṣuṇī'') are members of the Sangha (Buddhist ...

'') however the rules are more explicitly spelled out. For example, in the monastic code ('' Patimokkha''), it states: : "Should any bhikkhu intentionally deprive a human being of life, or search for an assassin for him, or praise the advantages of death, or incite him to die (thus): 'My good man, what use is this wretched, miserable life to you? Death would be better for you than life,' or with such an idea in mind, such a purpose in mind, should in various ways praise the advantages of death or incite him to die; he also is defeated and no longer in communion." Thanissaro Bhikkhu (1994)
''Buddhist Monastic Code I'': Chapter 4, Parajika
. Retrieved 2007-11-11.

Christianity

Catholicism

The

Catholic Church The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...

opposes active euthanasia and

physician-assisted suicide Assisted suicide is suicide undertaken with the aid of another person. The term usually refers to physician-assisted suicide (PAS), which is suicide that is assisted by a physician or other healthcare provider. Once it is determined that the p ...

on the grounds that life is a gift from God and should not be prematurely shortened. However, the church allows dying people to refuse extraordinary treatments that would minimally prolong life without hope of recovery, a form of passive euthanasia. Catholic opposition to active euthanasia can be traced back to ancient Jewish and early Christian attitudes towards suicide. Later in the

Middle Ages In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire a ...

and

Renaissance The Renaissance ( , ) , from , with the same meanings. is a period in European history marking the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and covering the 15th and 16th centuries, characterized by an effort to revive and surpass ideas ...

Thomas Aquinas Thomas Aquinas, OP (; it, Tommaso d'Aquino, lit=Thomas of Aquino; 1225 – 7 March 1274) was an Italian Dominican friar and priest who was an influential philosopher, theologian and jurist in the tradition of scholasticism; he is known wi ...

exemplified and shaped mainstream Christian views on suicide. He condemned suicide for violating the natural inclination towards self-preservation and self-perpetuation, for injuring other people and the community, and for defying divine authority over life. Western opinions against suicide among the sick were near-uniform until the mid-19th century, though Catholic thinker Thomas More may have been a notable exception. In ''

Utopia A utopia ( ) typically describes an imaginary community or society that possesses highly desirable or nearly perfect qualities for its members. It was coined by Sir Thomas More for his 1516 book ''Utopia (book), Utopia'', describing a fictional ...

'', More appears to advocate for active euthanasia (though the specific term did not exist at the time), but some scholars have questioned whether More's position was serious or satirical. In the early modern period, Catholic theologians considered moral questions pertaining to refusing medical treatment and passive dying. Francisco de Vitoria argued that a person does not violate the obligation to protect and preserve life if they choose not to take medicine prescribed by a doctor.

Domingo Báñez Domingo Báñez (also Dominico Bannes Mondragonensis) (29 February 1528 in Valladolid – 22 October 1604 in Medina del Campo) was a Spanish Dominican and Scholastic theologian. The qualifying ''Mondragonensis'' sometimes attached to his name s ...

distinguished between ordinary means of preserving life, such as eating and procuring clothing, and extraordinary means, such as painful medical procedures. He asserted that while one is morally obligated to eat and cloth oneself, one is not morally obligated to undergo the amputation of a limb to save one's life.

John de Lugo John de Lugo (also Juan de Lugo y de Quiroga and Xoan de Lugo) (1583–1660), a Spanish Jesuit and Cardinal, was an eminent theologian of the Baroque. The Catholic Church became one of the leading opponents of the modern euthanasia movement in the early 1900s.

Pope Pius XII Pope Pius XII ( it, Pio XII), born Eugenio Maria Giuseppe Giovanni Pacelli (; 2 March 18769 October 1958), was head of the Catholic Church and sovereign of the Vatican City State from 2 March 1939 until his death in October 1958. Before his e ...

was a vocal critic of euthanasia in the 1940s, but in 1957, he wrote "The Prolongation of Life: An Address of Pope Pius XII to an International Congress of Anesthesiologists" in which he declared that physicians did not have an obligation to prolong patients' lives with extraordinary treatments, such as providing ventilator support for patients without hope of recovery. Historian

Ian Dowbiggin Ian Robert Dowbiggin (born 1952) is a professor in the Department of History at the University of Prince Edward Island and writer on the history of medicine, in particular topics such as euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide. His research and ...

notes that this permits passive euthanasia in some circumstances without violating Christian doctrine. On 5 May 1980, the Vatican

Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith The Dicastery for the Doctrine of the Faith (DDF) is the oldest among the departments of the Roman Curia. Its seat is the Palace of the Holy Office in Rome. It was founded to defend the Catholic Church from Heresy in Christianity, heresy and is ...

issued the ''

Declaration on Euthanasia The ''Declaration on Euthanasia'' is the Roman Catholic Church's official document on the topic of euthanasia, a statement that was issued as by the Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith in 1980. Catholic teaching purports that eut ...

'', condemning euthanasia as a "violation of the divine law, an offense against the dignity of the human person, a crime against life, and an attack on humanity". It noted that advances in medical technology had blurred the line between ordinary and extraordinary means of sustaining life, but allowed terminally ill patients to refuse life-prolonging treatment in situations in which a physician believes the treatment's harm would outweigh the benefit. The declaration stated that a patient's refusal of disproportionate or extraordinary treatment "is not the equivalent of suicide", but instead "should be considered as an acceptance of the human condition". On 22 September 2020, the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith issued the letter "Samaritanus bonus", restating the church's opposition to euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide, criticising end-of-life protocols such as do-not-resuscitate orders, urging Catholic hospitals and health-care workers not to engage in "plainly immoral conduct", including referring patients to other hospitals where they might undergo euthanasia, and accusing lawmakers who approved of euthanasia of being "accomplices of a grave sin". However, the letter also repeated the church's allowance for terminally ill patients to refuse life-extending treatments.

Reuters Reuters ( ) is a news agency owned by Thomson Reuters Corporation. It employs around 2,500 journalists and 600 photojournalists in about 200 locations worldwide. Reuters is one of the largest news agencies in the world. The agency was estab ...

noted that the letter did not alter church doctrine, but instead reiterated existing doctrines in stronger language at a time when governments around the world, including those of some traditionally Catholic countries, were liberalising end-of-life care options.

Protestantism

Protestant Protestantism is a Christian denomination, branch of Christianity that follows the theological tenets of the Reformation, Protestant Reformation, a movement that began seeking to reform the Catholic Church from within in the 16th century agai ...

denominations vary widely on their approach to euthanasia and physician assisted death. Since the 1970s,

Evangelical Evangelicalism (), also called evangelical Christianity or evangelical Protestantism, is a worldwide Interdenominationalism, interdenominational movement within Protestantism, Protestant Christianity that affirms the centrality of being "bor ...

churches have worked with Roman Catholics on a sanctity of life approach, though some Evangelicals may be adopting a more exceptionless opposition.

Mainline Protestant The mainline Protestant churches (also called mainstream Protestant and sometimes oldline Protestant) are a group of Protestant denominations in the United States that contrast in history and practice with evangelical, fundamentalist, and charis ...

denominations, such as the

United Methodist Church The United Methodist Church (UMC) is a worldwide mainline Protestant denomination based in the United States, and a major part of Methodism. In the 19th century, its main predecessor, the Methodist Episcopal Church, was a leader in evangelical ...

, have largely eschewed euthanasia.

Eastern Orthodoxy

The

Orthodox Church in America The Orthodox Church in America (OCA) is an Eastern Orthodox Christian denomination, Christian church based in North America. The OCA is partly recognized as Autocephaly, autocephalous and consists of more than 700 parishes, missions, commun ...

, along with other Eastern Orthodox Churches, also opposes euthanasia, stating that it must be condemned as murder stating that, "Euthanasia is the deliberate cessation to end human life."

Christian groups in support of euthanasia

Groups claiming to speak for Christians rather than the official viewpoints of the Christian clergy have sprung up in a number of countries.

Hinduism

There are two Hindu points of view on euthanasia. By helping to end a painful life a person is performing a good deed and so fulfilling their moral obligations. Euthanasia may also be acceptable if it is used for selfless motives. On the other hand, by helping to end a life, even one filled with suffering, a person is disturbing the timing of the cycle of death and rebirth. This is a bad thing to do, and those involved in the euthanasia will take on the remaining karma of the patient. Death is a natural process, and will come in time. It is clearly stated in the Vedas that man has only two trustworthy friends in life, the first is called Vidya (knowledge), and the 2nd is called Mrityu (Death). The former is something that is beneficial and a requirement in life, and the latter is something that is inevitable sometimes even unexpected. It is not the euthanasia that is the act of sin, but worldly attachment which causes euthanasia to be looked upon as an act of sin. Even a Sannyasin or Sannyasini if they decide to, are permitted to end his or her life with the hope of reaching

moksha ''Moksha'' (; sa, मोक्ष, '), also called ''vimoksha'', ''vimukti'' and ''mukti'', is a term in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism for various forms of emancipation, enlightenment, liberation, and release. In its soteriology, ...

i.e. emancipation of the soul.

Islam

Muslims are against euthanasia. They believe that all humans life is sacred because it is given by God, and that God chooses how long each person lives. Human beings should not interfere in this. It is forbidden for a

Muslim Muslims ( ar, المسلمون, , ) are people who adhere to Islam, a monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God of Abrah ...

to plan, or come to know through self-will, the time of his own death in advance.

Jainism

Jainism Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religions, Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current ...

is based on the principle of non-violence ('' ahinsa'') and is best known for it. Jainism recommends voluntary death or ''sallekhana'' for both

ascetics Asceticism (; from the el, ἄσκησις, áskesis, exercise', 'training) is a lifestyle characterized by abstinence from sensual pleasures, often for the purpose of pursuing spiritual goals. Ascetics may withdraw from the world for their p ...

and srāvaka (householders) at the end of their life. ''

Sallekhana ''Sallekhana'' (IAST: ), also known as ''samlehna'', ''santhara'', ''samadhi-marana'' or ''sanyasana-marana'', is a supplementary vow to the ethical code of conduct of Jainism. It is the religious practice of voluntarily fasting to death by ...

'' (also known as ''Santhara'', ''Samadhi-marana'') is made up of two words ''sal'' (meaning 'properly') and ''lekhana'', which means to thin out. Properly thinning out of the passions and the body is ''sallekhana.'' A person is allowed to fast unto death or take the vow of ''sallekhana'' only when certain requirements are fulfilled. It is not considered suicide as the person observing it, must be in a state of full consciousness. When observing ''sallekhana'', one must not have the desire to live or desire to die. Practitioner shouldn't recollect the pleasures enjoyed or, long for the enjoyment of pleasures in the future. The process is still controversial in parts of India. Estimates for death by this means range from 100 to 240 a year. Preventing santhara invites social ostracism.

Judaism

Like the trend among Protestants, Jewish medical ethics have become divided, partly on denominational lines, over euthanasia and end of life treatment since the 1970s. Generally,

Jewish Jews ( he, יְהוּדִים, , ) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group and nation originating from the Israelites Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites""The ...

thinkers oppose voluntary euthanasia, often vigorously, though there is some backing for voluntary passive euthanasia in limited circumstances. Likewise, within the

Conservative Judaism Conservative Judaism, known as Masorti Judaism outside North America, is a Jewish religious movement which regards the authority of ''halakha'' (Jewish law) and traditions as coming primarily from its people and community through the generatio ...

movement, there has been increasing support for passive euthanasia (PAD) In

Reform Judaism Reform Judaism, also known as Liberal Judaism or Progressive Judaism, is a major Jewish denomination that emphasizes the evolving nature of Judaism, the superiority of its ethical aspects to its ceremonial ones, and belief in a continuous searc ...

responsa ''Responsa'' (plural of Latin , 'answer') comprise a body of written decisions and rulings given by legal scholars in response to questions addressed to them. In the modern era, the term is used to describe decisions and rulings made by scholars i ...

, the preponderance of anti-euthanasia sentiment has shifted in recent years to increasing support for certain passive euthanasia options. Secular Judaism is a separate category with increasing support for euthanasia. A popular sympathiser for euthanasia is Rabbi Miriam Jerris. A study performed in 2010 investigated elderly Jewish women who identified themselves as either Hasidic Orthodox, non-Hasidic Orthodox, or secularized Orthodox in their faith. The study found that all of the Hasidic Orthodox responders disapproved of voluntary euthanasia whereas a majority of the secularized Orthodox responders approved of it.

Shinto

Japan Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north ...

, where the dominant religion is

Shinto Shinto () is a religion from Japan. Classified as an East Asian religion by scholars of religion, its practitioners often regard it as Japan's indigenous religion and as a nature religion. Scholars sometimes call its practitioners ''Shintois ...

, 69% of the religious organisations agree with the act of voluntary passive euthanasia. The corresponding figure was 75% when the family asked for it. In Shinto, the prolongation of life using artificial means is a disgraceful act against life. Views on active euthanasia are mixed, with 25% Shinto and Buddhist organisations in Japan supporting voluntary active euthanasia.

Unitarian Universalism

The Unitarian Universalist Association (UUA) recommends observing the ethics and culture of the resident country when determining euthanasia. In 1988 the UUA gathered to share a commitment to The Right to Die with Dignity document which included a resolution supporting self-determination in dying.

Influence of religious views

Religious views on euthanasia are both varied and complicated. While one's view on the matter doesn't necessarily connect directly to their religion, it often impacts a person's opinion. While the influence of religion on one's views towards palliative care do make a difference, they often play a smaller role than one may think. An analysis of the connection between the religion of US adults and their view on euthanasia was done in order to see how they combine. The findings concluded that the religious affiliation one associates with does not necessarily connect with their stance on euthanasia. Research shows that while many belong to a specific religion, they may not always see every aspect as relevant to them. Some metadata analysis has supported the hypothesis that nurses’ attitudes towards euthanasia and physician assisted suicide are influenced by religion and world view. Attributing more importance to religion also seems to make agreement with euthanasia and physician assisted suicide less likely. A 1995 study of public opinion found that the tendency to see a distinction between active euthanasia and suicide was clearly affected by religious affiliation and education. In Australia, more doctors without formal religious affiliation were sympathetic to active voluntary euthanasia, and acknowledged that they had practiced it, than were doctors who gave any religious affiliation. Of those identifying with a religion, those who reported a Protestant affiliation were intermediate in their attitudes and practices between the agnostic/atheist and the Catholic groups. Catholics recorded attitudes most opposed, but even so, 18 percent of Catholic medical respondents who had been so requested, recorded that they had taken active steps to bring about the death of patients.Baume P, O'Malley E, Bauman A,
Professed religious affiliation and the practice of euthanasia
'' J Med Ethics 1995;21(1): 49–54.

References

Sources

* * *{{citation, last1=Kakar, first1=Sudhir, title=Death and Dying, chapter=A Jain Tradition of Liberating the Soul by Fasting Oneself, publisher=Penguin UK, date=2014, chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bHTAAwAAQBAJ, isbn=9789351187974 Religion and euthanasia Point of view