Rapeseed (''Brassica napus ''subsp.'' napus''), also known as rape, or oilseed rape, is a bright-yellow flowering member of the family

Brassicaceae Brassicaceae () or (the older) Cruciferae () is a medium-sized and economically important family of flowering plants commonly known as the mustards, the crucifers, or the cabbage family. Most are herbaceous plants, while some are shrubs. The le ...

(mustard or cabbage family), cultivated mainly for its oil-rich seed, which naturally contains appreciable amounts of

erucic acid Erucic acid is a monounsaturated omega-9 fatty acid, denoted 22:1ω9. It has the chemical formula CH3(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)11COOH. It is prevalent in wallflower seed and other plants in the family Brassicaceae, with a reported content of 20 to 54% in h ...

. The term ''

canola Close-up of canola blooms Canola flower Rapeseed oil is one of the oldest known vegetable oils. There are both edible and industrial forms produced from rapeseed, the seed of several cultivars of the plant family Brassicaceae. Historically, i ...

'' denotes a group of rapeseed

cultivar A cultivar is a type of cultivated plant that people have selected for desired traits and when propagated retain those traits. Methods used to propagate cultivars include: division, root and stem cuttings, offsets, grafting, tissue culture, ...

s which were bred to have very low levels of

and are especially prized for use as human and animal food. Rapeseed is the third-largest source of

vegetable oil Vegetable oils, or vegetable fats, are oils extracted from seeds or from other parts of fruits. Like animal fats, vegetable fats are ''mixtures'' of triglycerides. Soybean oil, grape seed oil, and cocoa butter are examples of seed oils, or fat ...

and the second-largest source of protein meal in the world. RapeseedFields

Description

''Brassica napus'' grows to in height with hairless, fleshy,

pinnatifid Pinnation (also called pennation) is the arrangement of feather-like or multi-divided features arising from both sides of a common Anatomical terms of location#Axes, axis. Pinnation occurs in biological morphology (biology), morphology, in Crysta ...

and

glaucous ''Glaucous'' (, ) is used to describe the pale grey or bluish-green appearance of the surfaces of some plants, as well as in the names of birds, such as the glaucous gull (''Larus hyperboreus''), glaucous-winged gull (''Larus glaucescens''), g ...

lower leaves which are stalked whereas the upper leaves have no petioles. ''Brassica napus'' can be distinguished from ''

Brassica nigra ''Brassica nigra'', or black mustard, is an annual plant cultivated for its dark-brown-to-black seeds, which are commonly used as a spice. It is native to tropical regions of North Africa, temperate regions of Europe, and parts of Asia. Descrip ...

'' by the upper leaves which do not clasp the stem, and from ''

Brassica rapa ''Brassica rapa'' is a plant species growing in various widely cultivated forms including the turnip (a root vegetable); napa cabbage, bomdong, bok choy, and rapini. ''Brassica rapa'' subsp. ''oleifera'' is an oilseed which has many common n ...

'' by its smaller petals which are less than across. Rapeseed flowers are bright yellow and about across. They are radial and consist of four

petals Petals are modified leaves that surround the reproductive parts of flowers. They are often brightly colored or unusually shaped to attract pollinators. All of the petals of a flower are collectively known as the ''corolla''. Petals are usually ...

in a typical cross-form, alternating with four

sepals A sepal () is a part of the flower of angiosperms (flowering plants). Usually green, sepals typically function as protection for the flower in bud, and often as support for the petals when in bloom., p. 106 The term ''sepalum'' was coined b ...

. They have indeterminate

racemose A raceme ( or ) or racemoid is an unbranched, indeterminate type of inflorescence bearing flowers having short floral stalks along the shoots that bear the flowers. The oldest flowers grow close to the base and new flowers are produced as the s ...

flowering starting at the lowest bud and growing upward in the following days. The flowers have two lateral

stamens The stamen (plural ''stamina'' or ''stamens'') is the pollen-producing reproductive organ of a flower. Collectively the stamens form the androecium., p. 10 Morphology and terminology A stamen typically consists of a stalk called the filame ...

with short filaments, and four median stamens with longer filaments whose anthers split away from the flower's center upon flowering. The rapeseed pods are green and elongated siliquae during development that eventually ripen to brown. They grow on

pedicels In botany, a pedicel is a stem that attaches a single flower to the inflorescence. Such inflorescences are described as ''pedicellate''. Description Pedicel refers to a structure connecting a single flower to its inflorescence. In the absenc ...

long, and can range from in length. Each pod has two compartments separated by an inner central wall within which a row of seeds develops. The seeds are round and have a diameter of . They have a reticulate surface texture, and are black and hard at maturity.

Etymology and taxonomy

The term "rape" derives from the Latin word for

turnip The turnip or white turnip (''Brassica rapa'' subsp. ''rapa'') is a root vegetable commonly grown in temperate climates worldwide for its white, fleshy taproot. The word ''turnip'' is a compound of ''turn'' as in turned/rounded on a lathe and ' ...

, ''rapa'' or ''rapum'', cognate with the Greek word ''rhapys''. The

species In biology, a species is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate s ...

''Brassica napus'' belongs to the flowering plant family

. Rapeseed is a

subspecies In biological classification, subspecies is a rank below species, used for populations that live in different areas and vary in size, shape, or other physical characteristics (morphology), but that can successfully interbreed. Not all species ...

with the

autonym Autonym may refer to: * Autonym, the name used by a person to refer to themselves or their language; see Exonym and endonym * Autonym (botany), an automatically created infrageneric or infraspecific name See also * Nominotypical subspecies, in zo ...

''B. napus ''subsp.'' napus''. It encompasses winter and spring oilseed, vegetable and fodder rape. Siberian kale is a distinct leaf rape form

variety Variety may refer to: Arts and entertainment Entertainment formats * Variety (radio) * Variety show, in theater and television Films * ''Variety'' (1925 film), a German silent film directed by Ewald Andre Dupont * ''Variety'' (1935 film), ...

(''B. napus ''var.'' pabularia'') which used to be common as a winter-annual vegetable. The second subspecies of ''B. napus'' is ''B. napus ''subsp.'' rapifera'' (also subsp. ''napobrassica''; the rutabaga, swede, or yellow turnip). ''Brassica napus'' is a digenomic

amphidiploid Polyploidy is a condition in which the cells of an organism have more than one pair of ( homologous) chromosomes. Most species whose cells have nuclei (eukaryotes) are diploid, meaning they have two sets of chromosomes, where each set contains ...

that occurred due to the

interspecific hybridization In biology, a hybrid is the offspring resulting from combining the qualities of two organisms of different breeds, varieties, species or genera through sexual reproduction. Hybrids are not always intermediates between their parents (such as in ...

between ''

Brassica oleracea ''Brassica oleracea'' is a plant species from family Brassicaceae that includes many common cultivars used as vegetables, such as cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, kale, Brussels sprouts, collard greens, Savoy cabbage, kohlrabi, and gai lan. Its ...

'' and ''

''. It is a self-compatible pollinating species like the other amphidiploid ''brassica'' species.

Ecology

In Northern Ireland, U K ''B. napus'' and ''B. rapa'' are recorded as escapes in roadside verges and waste ground.

Uses

Rapeseed is grown for the production of edible vegetable oils, animal feed, and

biodiesel Biodiesel is a form of diesel fuel derived from plants or animals and consisting of long-chain fatty acid esters. It is typically made by chemically reacting lipids such as animal fat (tallow), soybean oil, or some other vegetable oil with ...

. Rapeseed was the third-leading source of vegetable oil in the world in 2000, after

soybean The soybean, soy bean, or soya bean (''Glycine max'') is a species of legume native to East Asia, widely grown for its edible bean, which has numerous uses. Traditional unfermented food uses of soybeans include soy milk, from which tofu an ...

and

palm oil Palm oil is an edible vegetable oil derived from the mesocarp (reddish pulp) of the fruit of the oil palms. The oil is used in food manufacturing, in beauty products, and as biofuel. Palm oil accounted for about 33% of global oils produced from ...

. It is the world's second-leading source of

protein Proteins are large biomolecules and macromolecules that comprise one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, respo ...

meal after soybean.

Vegetable oil

Rapeseed oil Close-up of canola blooms Canola flower Rapeseed oil is one of the oldest known vegetable oils. There are both edible and industrial forms produced from rapeseed, the seed of several cultivars of the plant family Brassicaceae. Historically, i ...

is one of the oldest known vegetable oils, but historically was used in limited quantities due to high levels of erucic acid, which is damaging to

cardiac muscle Cardiac muscle (also called heart muscle, myocardium, cardiomyocytes and cardiac myocytes) is one of three types of vertebrate muscle tissues, with the other two being skeletal muscle and smooth muscle. It is an involuntary, striated muscle th ...

of animals, and glucosinolates, which made it less nutritious in animal feed. Rapeseed oil can contain up to 54% erucic acid. Food-grade oil derived from rapeseed cultivars, known as canola oil or low-erucic-acid rapeseed oil (LEAR oil), has been generally recognized as safe by the

United States Food and Drug Administration The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA or US FDA) is a federal agency of the Department of Health and Human Services. The FDA is responsible for protecting and promoting public health through the control and supervision of food s ...

. Canola oil is limited by government regulation to a maximum of 2% erucic acid by weight in the US and 2% in the EU, with special regulations for infant food. These low levels of erucic acid are not believed to cause harm in human

infants An infant or baby is the very young offspring of human beings. ''Infant'' (from the Latin word ''infans'', meaning 'unable to speak' or 'speechless') is a formal or specialised synonym for the common term ''baby''. The terms may also be used to ...

Animal feed

Processing of rapeseed for oil production produces rapeseed meal as a byproduct. The byproduct is a high-protein animal feed, competitive with soybean. Rapeseed is an excellent

silage Silage () is a type of fodder made from green foliage crops which have been preserved by fermentation to the point of acidification. It can be fed to cattle, sheep and other such ruminants (cud-chewing animals). The fermentation and storage p ...

crop (fermented and stored in air-tight conditions for later use as a winterfeed). The feed is employed mostly for

cattle Cattle (''Bos taurus'') are large, domesticated, cloven-hooved, herbivores. They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae and the most widespread species of the genus ''Bos''. Adult females are referred to as cows and adult mal ...

feeding, but is also used for

pig The pig (''Sus domesticus''), often called swine, hog, or domestic pig when distinguishing from other members of the genus '' Sus'', is an omnivorous, domesticated, even-toed, hoofed mammal. It is variously considered a subspecies of ''Sus s ...

s and

poultry Poultry () are domesticated birds kept by humans for their eggs, their meat or their feathers. These birds are most typically members of the superorder Galloanserae (fowl), especially the order Galliformes (which includes chickens, quails, a ...

. However, the high levels of erucic acid and

glucosinolates Glucosinolates are natural components of many pungency, pungent plants such as mustard plant, mustard, cabbage, and horseradish. The pungency of those plants is due to mustard oils produced from glucosinolates when the plant material is chewed, cut ...

in natural rapeseed oil significantly lowers the nutritional value of rapeseed press cakes for animal feed. Rapeseed meal is mostly used as a soil fertilizer rather than for animal feed in China.

Biodiesel

Rapeseed oil is used as diesel fuel, either as

, straight in heated fuel systems, or blended with petroleum distillates for powering motor vehicles. Biodiesel may be used in pure form in newer engines without engine damage and is frequently combined with fossil-fuel

diesel Diesel may refer to: * Diesel engine, an internal combustion engine where ignition is caused by compression * Diesel fuel, a liquid fuel used in diesel engines * Diesel locomotive, a railway locomotive in which the prime mover is a diesel engin ...

in ratios varying from 2% to 20% biodiesel. Owing to the costs of growing, crushing, and refining rapeseed biodiesel, rapeseed-derived biodiesel from new oil costs more to produce than standard diesel fuel, so diesel fuels are commonly made from the used oil. Rapeseed oil is the preferred oil stock for biodiesel production in most of Europe, accounting for about 80% of the feedstock, partly because rapeseed produces more oil per unit of land area compared to other oil sources, such as soybeans, but primarily because canola oil has a significantly lower

gel point In polymer chemistry, the gel point is an abrupt change in the viscosity of a solution containing polymerizable components. At the gel point, a solution undergoes gelation as reflected in a loss in fluidity. Gelation is characteristic of polymeri ...

than most other vegetable oils. Because of the changes to the environment caused by climate change, a 2018 study predicted that rapeseed would become an unreliable source of oil for biofuels.

Other

Rapeseed is also used as a

cover crop In agriculture, cover crops are plants that are planted to cover the soil rather than for the purpose of being harvested. Cover crops manage soil erosion, soil fertility, soil quality, water, weeds, pests, diseases, biodiversity and wildlife i ...

in the US during the winter as it prevents

soil erosion Soil erosion is the denudation or wearing away of the upper layer of soil. It is a form of soil degradation. This natural process is caused by the dynamic activity of erosive agents, that is, water, ice (glaciers), snow, air (wind), plants, and ...

, produces large amounts of

biomass Biomass is plant-based material used as a fuel for heat or electricity production. It can be in the form of wood, wood residues, energy crops, agricultural residues, and waste from industry, farms, and households. Some people use the terms bi ...

, suppresses weeds and can improve soil tilth with its root system. Some cultivars of rapeseed are also used as annual forage and are ready for grazing livestock 80 to 90 days after planting. Rapeseed has a high Melliferous flower, melliferous potential (produces substances that can be collected by insects) and is a main forage crop for honeybees. Monofloral rapeseed honey has a whitish or milky yellow color, peppery taste and, due to its fast crystallization time, a soft-solid texture. It crystallizes within 3 to 4 weeks and can ferment over time if stored improperly. The low fructose-to-glucose ratio in Monofloral honey, monofloral rapeseed honey causes it to quickly granulate in the honeycomb, forcing beekeepers to extract the honey within 24 hours of it being capped. As a Lubricant#Biolubricant, biolubricant, rapeseed has possible uses for bio-medical applications (e.g., lubricants for artificial joints) and the use of personal lubricant for sexual purposes. Biolubricant containing 70% or more canola/rapeseed oil has replaced petroleum-based chainsaw oil in Austria although it is typically more expensive. Rapeseed has been researched as a means of containing radionuclides that contaminated the soil after the Chernobyl disaster as it has a rate of uptake up to three times more than other grains, and only about 3 to 6% of the radionuclides go into the oilseeds.

Cultivation

Champ de colza Côte-d'Or Bourgogne avril 2014

Crops from the genus ''Brassica'', including rapeseed, were among the earliest plants to be widely cultivated by mankind as early as 10,000 years ago. Rapeseed was being cultivated in India as early as 4000 B.C. and it spread to China and Japan 2000 years ago. Rapeseed oil is predominantly cultivated in its winter form in most of Europe and Asia due to the requirement of vernalization to start the process of flowering. It is sown in autumn and remains in a Rosette (botany), leaf rosette on the soil surface during the winter. The plant grows a long vertical stem in the next spring followed by lateral branch development. It generally flowers in late spring with the process of pod development and ripening occurring over a period of 6–8 weeks until midsummer. In Europe, winter rapeseed is grown as an annual break crop in three to four-year rotations with cereals such as wheat and barley, and break crops such as peas and beans. This is done to reduce the possibility of pests and diseases being carried over from one crop to another. Winter rape is less susceptible to crop failure as it is more vigorous than the summer variety and can compensate for damage done by pests. Field in Kärkölä

Spring rapeseed is cultivated in Canada, northern Europe and Australia as it is not winter-hardy and does not require vernalization. The crop is sown in spring with stem development happening immediately after germination. Rapeseed can be cultivated on a wide variety of well-drained soils, prefers a pH between 5.5 and 8.3 and has a moderate tolerance of soil salinity. It is predominantly a Anemophily, wind-pollinated plant but shows significantly increased grain yields when Honey bee#Pollination, bee-pollinated, almost double the final yield but the effect is cultivar-dependent. It is currently grown with high levels of nitrogen-containing fertilisers, and the manufacture of these generates Nitrous oxide, N₂O. An estimated 3–5% of nitrogen provided as fertilizer for rapeseed is converted to N₂O.

Climate change

The cultivatable range for rapeseed is both expected to decrease due to climate change, and where rapeseed is grown quality of the crop, in both yield and volume of oil is expected to decrease substantially. Some researchers recommend finding alternative varieties of ''Brassica'' for cultivation.

Diseases and pests

The main diseases of the winter rapeseed crop are ''canker'', light leaf spot (''Pyrenopeziza brassicae''), alternaria stem rot, alternaria-'' and sclerotinia stem rot, sclerotinia- stem rots. Canker causes leaf spotting, and premature ripening and weakening of the stem during the autumn-winter (fall-winter) period. A conazole fungicide, conazole- or triazole fungicide, triazole- fungicide treatment is required in late autumn (fall) and in spring against canker while broad-spectrum fungicides are used during the spring-summer period for alternaria and sclerotinia control. Oilseed rape cannot be planted in close rotation with itself due to soil-borne diseases such as sclerotinia, verticillium wilt and clubroot. Transgenic rapeseed shows great promise for . Transexpression of a class II chitinase from barley (''Hordeum vulgare'') and a type I ribosome inactivating protein into ''Brassica juncea, B. juncea'' produces a large . Chhikara ''et al.'', 2012 finds that this combination of transgenes reduces hyphal growth by 44% and growth inhibition, delays disease presentation in ''Alternaria brassicicola'' of ''juncea''.

Pests

Rapeseed is attacked by a wide variety of insects, , as well as Common wood pigeon, wood pigeons. The brassica pod midge (''Dasineura brassicae''), cabbage seed weevil (''Ceutorhynchus Ceutorhynchus assimilis, assimilis''), cabbage stem weevil (''Ceutorhynchus pallidactylus''), cabbage stem flea beetle (''Psylliodes chrysocephala''), rape stem weevil (''Ceutorhynchus Ceutorhynchus napi, napi'') and pollen beetles are the primary insect pests that prey on the oilseed rape crop in Europe. The insect pests can feed on developing pods to lay eggs inside and eat the developing seeds, bore into the plant's stem and feed on pollen, leaves and flowers. Synthetic pyrethroid insecticides are the main attack vector against insect pests though there is a large-scale use of prophylactic insecticides in many countries. Molluscicide pellets are used either before or after sowing of the rapeseed crop to protect against slugs.

Genetics and breeding

In 2014 an SNP array was released for ''B. napus'' by Dalton-Morgan ''et al.'', and another by Clarke ''et al.'', in 2016, both of which have since become widely used in molecular breeding. In a demonstration of the importance of epigenetics, Hauben ''et al.'', 2009 found that isogenic lines did ''not'' have identical energy use efficiencies in actual growing conditions, due to epigenetic differences. Specific locus amplified fragment sequencing (SLAF-seq) was applied to ''B. napus'' by Geng ''et al.'', in 2016, revealing the genetics of the past domestication process, providing data for genome-wide association studies (GWAS), and being used to construct a high-density linkage map.

History of the cultivars

In 1973, Canadian Agricultural science, agricultural scientists launched a marketing campaign to promote

consumption. Seed, oil, and protein meal derived from rapeseed cultivars which is low in erucic acid and low in glucosinolates was originally registered as a trademark, in 1978, of the Canola Council of Canada, as "canola". This is now a generic term for edible varieties of rapeseed but is still officially defined in Canada as rapeseed oil that "must contain less than 2% erucic acid and less than 30 µmol of glucosinolates per gram of air-dried oil-free meal." Following the European Parliament's Transport Biofuels Directive 2003, Transport Biofuels Directive in 2003 promoting the use of biofuels, the cultivation of winter rapeseed increased dramatically in Europe. Bayer Cropscience, in collaboration with BGI-Shenzhen, China, KeyGene, the Netherlands, and the University of Queensland, Australia, announced it had sequenced the entire genome of ''B. napus'' and its constituent genomes present in ''B. rapa'' and ''B. oleracea'' in 2009. The "A" genome component of the amphidiploid rapeseed species ''B. napus'' is currently being sequenced by the Multinational ''Brassica'' Genome Project. A genetically modified-for-glyphosate-tolerance variety of rapeseed which was developed in 1998 is considered to be the most disease- and drought-resistant canola. By 2009, 90% of the rapeseed crops planted in Canada were of this sort.

GMO cultivars

The Monsanto company genetically engineered new cultivars of rapeseed to be resistant to the effects of its herbicide, Roundup (herbicide), Roundup. In 1998, they brought this to the Canadian market. Monsanto sought compensation from farmers found to have crops of this cultivar in their fields without paying a license fee. However, these farmers claimed that the pollen containing the ''Roundup Ready'' gene was blown into their fields and crossed with unaltered canola. Other farmers claimed that after spraying Roundup in non-canola fields to kill weeds before planting, ''Roundup Ready'' Volunteer (botany), volunteers were left behind, causing extra expense to rid their fields of the weeds. In a closely followed legal battle, the Supreme Court of Canada found in favor of Monsanto's patent infringement claim for unlicensed growing of ''Roundup Ready'' in its 2004 ruling on ''Monsanto Canada Inc. v. Schmeiser'', but also ruled that Schmeiser was not required to pay any damages. The case garnered international controversy, as a court-sanctioned legitimization for the global patent protection of genetically modified crops. In March 2008, an out-of-court settlement between Monsanto and Schmeiser agreed that Monsanto would clean up the entire GMO-canola crop on Schmeiser's farm, at a cost of about CAN$660.

Production

The Food and Agriculture Organization reports global production of in the 2003–2004 season, and an estimated in the 2010–2011 season. Worldwide production of rapeseed (including canola) has increased sixfold between 1975 and 2007. The production of canola and rapeseed since 1975 has opened up the edible oil market for rapeseed oil. Since 2002, production of

has been steadily increasing in EU and U.S. to in 2006. Rapeseed oil is positioned to supply a good portion of the vegetable oils needed to produce that fuel. World production was thus expected to trend further upward between 2005 and 2015 as biodiesel content requirements in Europe go into effect.Canola, Growing Great 2016, The Canola Council of Canada, 2007, page 3, 10 } , - style="text-align:right;" , style="text-align:left;" , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , - style="text-align:right;" , style="text-align:left;" , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , - style="text-align:right;" , style="text-align:left;" , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , - style="text-align:right;" , style="text-align:left;" , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , - style="text-align:right;" , style="text-align:left;" , , , <, , <, , <, , <, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , - style="text-align:right;" , style="text-align:left;" , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , - style="text-align:right;" , style="text-align:left;" , , , <, , <, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , - style="text-align:right;" , style="text-align:left;" , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , - style="text-align:right;" , style="text-align:left;" , , , N/A, , N/A, , N/A, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , - style="text-align:right;" , style="text-align:left;" , , , <, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , - style="text-align:right;" , style="text-align:left;" , , , <, , <, , <, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , - style="text-align:right;" , style="text-align:left;" , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , - style="text-align:right;" , style="text-align:left;" , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , - style="text-align:right;" , style="text-align:left;" , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , - style="text-align:right;" , style="text-align:left;" , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , - style="text-align:right;" , style="text-align:left;" , , , N/A, , N/A, , N/A, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , - style="text-align:right;" , style="text-align:left;" , , , N/A, , N/A, , N/A, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , - style="text-align:right;" , style="text-align:left;" , World Total, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,

Explanatory notes

References

Citations

General sources

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *

External links

* * {{Authority control Asian vegetables Brassica Crops Edible nuts and seeds Energy crops Fodder Leaf vegetables Medicinal plants Plants described in 1753