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Quebec nationalism or Québécois nationalism is a feeling and a political doctrine that prioritizes cultural belonging to, the defence of the interests of, and the recognition of the political legitimacy of the Québécois
nation A nation is a community of people formed on the basis of a combination of shared features such as language, history, ethnicity, culture and/or society. A nation is thus the collective Identity (social science), identity of a group of people unde ...
. It has been a movement and a central issue in
Quebec politics The politics of Quebec are centred on a provincial government resembling that of the other Canadian provinces, namely a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy. The capital of Quebec is Quebec City, where the Lieutenant Governor, Premi ...
since the beginning of the 19th century. Québécois nationalism has seen several political, ideological and partisan variations and incarnations over the years. Quebec nationalism plays a central role in the political movement for the independence of Quebec. Several groups and political parties claim to be Québécois nationalists. The
autonomist Autonomism, also known as autonomist Marxism is an anti-capitalist left-wing political and social movement and theory. As a theoretical system, it first emerged in Italy in the 1960s from workerism (). Later, post-Marxist and anarchist tend ...
political parties, which do not want the sovereignty of Quebec but the expansion of its powers and the defence of its specificity within Canada, such as the Coalition Avenir Québec, also claim to be Québécois nationalists. Quebec nationalism was first known as "French Canadian nationalism". The term was replaced by "Québécois nationalism" during the
Quiet Revolution The Quiet Revolution (french: Révolution tranquille) was a period of intense socio-political and socio-cultural change in French Canada which started in Quebec after the election of 1960, characterized by the effective secularization of govern ...
.


''Canadien'' liberal nationalism


New France

The settlement of
New France New France (french: Nouvelle-France) was the area colonized by France in North America, beginning with the exploration of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence by Jacques Cartier in 1534 and ending with the cession of New France to Great Britain and Spa ...
was made up of 7 regions that spanned from the Maritimes to the Rockies and from the Hudson Bay to the Gulf of Mexico. Although this landscape was vast, most efforts were made to colonize what is now present-day Canada. After the 17th century, the newly-arrived French settlers adapted to the terrain of New France. Over time, these settlers developed a regional Canadian identity. This could be seen in the developing of new accents, creation of new legends and stories, emerging societal traits and the use of the French language. The latter originated with the loss of the settlers'
langue d'oïl Langue is a municipality in the Valle Department, Honduras. The town is located near the border of El Salvador and is a regional Hammock making center. Most of the town is made up of sharecroppers and day laborers. There are usually Mormon miss ...
s and the adoption of standard French, which came to be used by the educated classes of the colony. It further developed from the levelling of many langues d'oïl which led to the creation of a local accent. During this time, the newly-arrived immigrants were no longer seen as immigrants but rather people who embodied not only a Canadian identity but also a provincial identity as well. Moreover, this was complemented by the fact that 95% of the colonists were Francophones, while the remaining people were English-speaking. However, this would prove to create contention later on.


1534–1774

Canada was first a French colony. Jacques Cartier claimed it for France in 1534, and permanent French settlement began in 1608. It was part of
New France New France (french: Nouvelle-France) was the area colonized by France in North America, beginning with the exploration of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence by Jacques Cartier in 1534 and ending with the cession of New France to Great Britain and Spa ...
, which constituted all French colonies in North America. See drop-down essay on "Early European Settlement and the Formation of the Modern State" Up until 1760, ''Canadien'' nationalism had developed itself free of all external influences. However, during the
Seven Years' War The Seven Years' War (1756–1763) was a global conflict that involved most of the European Great Powers, and was fought primarily in Europe, the Americas, and Asia-Pacific. Other concurrent conflicts include the French and Indian War (175 ...
, the
British British may refer to: Peoples, culture, and language * British people, nationals or natives of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories, and Crown Dependencies. ** Britishness, the British identity and common culture * British English, ...
invaded New France as part of the
French and Indian War The French and Indian War (1754–1763) was a theater of the Seven Years' War, which pitted the North American colonies of the British Empire against those of the French, each side being supported by various Native American tribes. At the ...
, winning a conclusive victory at the
Battle of the Plains of Abraham The Battle of the Plains of Abraham, also known as the Battle of Quebec (french: Bataille des Plaines d'Abraham, Première bataille de Québec), was a pivotal battle in the Seven Years' War (referred to as the French and Indian War to describe ...
. At the
Treaty of Paris Treaty of Paris may refer to one of many treaties signed in Paris, France: Treaties 1200s and 1300s * Treaty of Paris (1229), which ended the Albigensian Crusade * Treaty of Paris (1259), between Henry III of England and Louis IX of France * Trea ...
, France agreed to abandon its claims over New France in return for the island of Guadeloupe. From the 1760's onward, ''Canadien'' nationalism developed within a British constitutional context. Despite intense pressure from outside Parliament, the British government drafted the
Quebec Act The Quebec Act 1774 (french: Acte de Québec), or British North America (Quebec) Act 1774, was an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain which set procedures of governance in the Province of Quebec. One of the principal components of the Act w ...
which guaranteed ''Canadiens'' the restoration of French civil law; guaranteed the free practice of the Catholic faith; and returned the territorial extensions that they had enjoyed before the Treaty of Paris. In effect, this "enlightened" action by leaders in the British Parliament allowed French Canada to retain its unique characteristics. Although detrimental to Britain's relationship with the
Thirteen Colonies The Thirteen Colonies, also known as the Thirteen British Colonies, the Thirteen American Colonies, or later as the United Colonies, were a group of British colonies on the Atlantic coast of North America. Founded in the 17th and 18th cent ...
, this has, in its contemporary assessment, been viewed as an act of appeasement and was largely effective at dissolving ''Canadien'' nationalism in the 18th century (especially considering the threat and proximity of American revolutionary ideology) yet it became less effective with the arrival of Loyalists after the revolutions. With the Loyalists splitting the Province of Quebec into two identities;
Upper Canada The Province of Upper Canada (french: link=no, province du Haut-Canada) was a part of British Canada established in 1791 by the Kingdom of Great Britain, to govern the central third of the lands in British North America, formerly part of th ...
and
Lower Canada The Province of Lower Canada (french: province du Bas-Canada) was a British colony on the lower Saint Lawrence River and the shores of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence (1791–1841). It covered the southern portion of the current Province of Quebec an ...
, ''Canadiens'' were now labelled by the Loyalists as French Canadians.


1800s–1880s

From 1776 to the late 1830s, the world witnessed the creation of many new national states with the birth of the
United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territori ...
, the French Republic, Haiti,
Paraguay Paraguay (; ), officially the Republic of Paraguay ( es, República del Paraguay, links=no; gn, Tavakuairetã Paraguái, links=si), is a landlocked country in South America. It is bordered by Argentina to the south and southwest, Brazil to th ...
,
Argentina Argentina (), officially the Argentine Republic ( es, link=no, República Argentina), is a country in the southern half of South America. Argentina covers an area of , making it the second-largest country in South America after Brazil, th ...
,
Chile Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a country in the western part of South America. It is the southernmost country in the world, and the closest to Antarctica, occupying a long and narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east a ...
,
Mexico Mexico (Spanish: México), officially the United Mexican States, is a country in the southern portion of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States; to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; to the southeast by Guatema ...
,
Brazil Brazil ( pt, Brasil; ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: ), is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. At and with over 217 million people, Brazil is the world's fifth-largest country by area ...
,
Peru , image_flag = Flag of Peru.svg , image_coat = Escudo nacional del Perú.svg , other_symbol = Great Seal of the State , other_symbol_type = National seal , national_motto = "Firm and Happy f ...
,
Gran Colombia Gran Colombia (, "Great Colombia"), or Greater Colombia, officially the Republic of Colombia (Spanish language, Spanish: ''República de Colombia''), was a state that encompassed much of northern South America and part of southern Central Ameri ...
,
Belgium Belgium, ; french: Belgique ; german: Belgien officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a country in Northwestern Europe. The country is bordered by the Netherlands to the north, Germany to the east, Luxembourg to the southeast, France to th ...
,
Greece Greece,, or , romanized: ', officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the southern tip of the Balkans, and is located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Greece shares land borders ...
and others. Often accomplished militarily, these national independence movements occurred in the context of complex ideological and political struggles pitting European metropoles against their respective colonies, often assuming the dichotomy of
monarchist Monarchism is the advocacy of the system of monarchy or monarchical rule. A monarchist is an individual who supports this form of government independently of any specific monarch, whereas one who supports a particular monarch is a royalist. ...
s against republicans. These battles succeeded in creating independent republican states in some regions of the world, but they failed in other places, such as
Ireland Ireland ( ; ga, Éire ; Ulster Scots dialect, Ulster-Scots: ) is an island in the Atlantic Ocean, North Atlantic Ocean, in Northwestern Europe, north-western Europe. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel (Grea ...
,
Upper Canada The Province of Upper Canada (french: link=no, province du Haut-Canada) was a part of British Canada established in 1791 by the Kingdom of Great Britain, to govern the central third of the lands in British North America, formerly part of th ...
,
Lower Canada The Province of Lower Canada (french: province du Bas-Canada) was a British colony on the lower Saint Lawrence River and the shores of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence (1791–1841). It covered the southern portion of the current Province of Quebec an ...
, and
Germany Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwe ...
. There is no consensus on the exact time of the birth of a national consciousness in
French Canada French Canadians (referred to as Canadiens mainly before the twentieth century; french: Canadiens français, ; feminine form: , ), or Franco-Canadians (french: Franco-Canadiens), refers to either an ethnic group who trace their ancestry to Fre ...
. Some historians defend the thesis that it existed before the 19th century, because the ''Canadiens'' saw themselves as a people culturally distinct from the French even in the time of
New France New France (french: Nouvelle-France) was the area colonized by France in North America, beginning with the exploration of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence by Jacques Cartier in 1534 and ending with the cession of New France to Great Britain and Spa ...
. The cultural tensions were indeed palpable between the governor of New France, the Canadian-born Pierre de Vaudreuil and the General Louis-Joseph de Montcalm, a Frenchman, during the
French and Indian War The French and Indian War (1754–1763) was a theater of the Seven Years' War, which pitted the North American colonies of the British Empire against those of the French, each side being supported by various Native American tribes. At the ...
. However, the use of the expression ''la nation canadienne'' (the Canadian nation) by French Canadians is a reality of the 19th century. The idea of a ''nation canadienne'' was supported by the liberal or professional class in Lower Canada: lawyers, notaries, librarians, accountants, doctors, journalists, and architects, among others. A political movement for the independence of the ''Canadien'' people slowly took form following the enactment of the
Constitutional Act of 1791 The Clergy Endowments (Canada) Act 1791, commonly known as the Constitutional Act 1791 (), was an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain which passed under George III. The current short title has been in use since 1896. History The act refor ...
. The Act of the
British Parliament The Parliament of the United Kingdom is the supreme legislative body of the United Kingdom, the Crown Dependencies and the British Overseas Territories. It meets at the Palace of Westminster, London. It alone possesses legislative suprem ...
created two colonies, Lower Canada and Upper Canada, each of which had its own political institutions. In Lower Canada, the French-speaking and Catholic ''Canadiens'' held the majority in the elected house of representatives, but were either a small minority or simply not represented in the appointed legislative and executive councils, both appointed by the Governor, representing the British Crown in the colony. Most of the members of the legislative council and the executive council were part of the British ruling class, composed of wealthy merchants, judges, militia officers and other members of the elite supportive of the Tory party. From early 1800 to 1837, the government and the elected assembly were at odds on virtually every issue. Under the leadership of Speaker
Louis-Joseph Papineau Louis-Joseph Papineau (October 7, 1786 – September 23, 1871), born in Montreal, Quebec, was a politician, lawyer, and the landlord of the ''seigneurie de la Petite-Nation''. He was the leader of the reformist Patriote movement before the Low ...
, the
Parti canadien The Parti canadien () or Parti patriote () was a primarily francophone political party in what is now Quebec founded by members of the liberal elite of Lower Canada at the beginning of the 19th century. Its members were made up of liberal pro ...
(renamed Parti patriote in 1826) initiated a movement of reform of the political institutions of Lower Canada. The party's constitutional policy, summed up in the
Ninety-Two Resolutions The Ninety-Two Resolutions were drafted by Louis-Joseph Papineau and other members of the '' Parti patriote'' of Lower Canada in 1834. The resolutions were a long series of demands for political reforms in the British-governed colony. Papineau ha ...
of 1834, called for the election of the legislative and executive councils. The movement of reform gathered the support of the majority of the representatives of the people among Francophones but also among liberal Anglophones. A number of the prominent characters in the reformist movement were of British descent, for example John Neilson,
Wolfred Nelson Wolfred Nelson (10 July 1791 – 17 June 1863) was the mayor of Montreal, Quebec, from 1854 to 1856. Biography Nelson was born in Montreal. His father, William Nelson, was an immigrant to Colonial America from Newsham, North Yorkshire, En ...
, Robert Nelson and Thomas Storrow Brown or of Irish extraction,
Edmund Bailey O'Callaghan Edmund Bailey O'Callaghan, (probably 27 February 1797 – 29 May 1880) was a doctor and journalist. Career Born in Mallow, County Cork, Ireland, he studied medicine in Paris and immigrated to Lower Canada in 1823 where he became involved ...
, Daniel Tracey and Jocquelin Waller. Two currents existed within the reformists of the
Parti canadien The Parti canadien () or Parti patriote () was a primarily francophone political party in what is now Quebec founded by members of the liberal elite of Lower Canada at the beginning of the 19th century. Its members were made up of liberal pro ...
: a moderate wing, whose members were fond of British institutions and wished for Lower Canada to have a government more accountable to the elective house's representative and a more radical wing whose attachment to British institutions was rather conditional to this proving to be as good as to those of the neighbouring American republics. The formal rejection of all
92 resolutions The Ninety-Two Resolutions were drafted by Louis-Joseph Papineau and other members of the ''Parti patriote'' of Lower Canada in 1834. The resolutions were a long series of demands for political reforms in the British-governed colony. Papineau had ...
by the Parliament of Great Britain in 1837 led to a radicalization of the patriotic movement's actions. Louis-Joseph Papineau took the leadership of a new strategy which included the boycott of all British imports. During the summer, many popular gatherings (''assemblées populaires'') were organized to protest against the policy of Great Britain in Lower Canada. In November, Governor Archibald Acheson ordered the arrest of 26 leaders of the ''patriote'' movement, among whom Louis-Joseph Papineau and many other reformists were members of parliament. This instigated an armed conflict which developed into the
Lower Canada Rebellion The Lower Canada Rebellion (french: rébellion du Bas-Canada), commonly referred to as the Patriots' War () in French, is the name given to the armed conflict in 1837–38 between rebels and the colonial government of Lower Canada (now south ...
. Following the repression of the insurrectionist movement of 1838, many of the most revolutionary nationalist and democratic ideas of the Parti patriote were discredited.


Ultramontane nationalism


1840s–1950s

Although it was still defended and promoted up until the beginning of the 20th century, the French-Canadian liberal nationalism born out of the American and French revolutions began to decline in the 1840s, gradually being replaced by both a more moderate liberal nationalism and the
ultramontanism Ultramontanism is a clerical political conception within the Catholic Church that places strong emphasis on the prerogatives and powers of the Pope. It contrasts with Gallicanism, the belief that popular civil authority—often represented by th ...
of the powerful Catholic clergy as epitomized by
Lionel Groulx Lionel Groulx (; 13 January 1878 – 23 May 1967) was a Canadian Roman Catholic priest, historian, and Quebec nationalist. Biography Early life and ordination Lionel Groulx, né Joseph Adolphe Lyonel Groulx, the son of a farmer and lumber ...
. In opposition with the other nationalists, ultramontanes rejected the rising democratic ideal that the people are sovereign and that the Church should have limited influence in governance. To protect the power of the Church and prevent the rise of democracy and the separation of church-and-state,
Lionel Groulx Lionel Groulx (; 13 January 1878 – 23 May 1967) was a Canadian Roman Catholic priest, historian, and Quebec nationalist. Biography Early life and ordination Lionel Groulx, né Joseph Adolphe Lyonel Groulx, the son of a farmer and lumber ...
and other intellectuals engaged in nationalistic 'myth-making' or propaganda, to build a nationalistic French-Canadian identity, in purpose to protect the power of the Church and dissuade the public from popular-rule and secularist views. Groulx propagated French-Canadian nationalism and argued that maintaining a Roman Catholic Quebec was the only means to 'emancipate the nation against English power.' He believed the powers of the provincial government of Quebec could and should be used within Confederation, to bolster provincial autonomy (and thus Church power), and advocated it would benefit the French-Canadian nation economically, socially, culturally and linguistically. Groulx successfully promoted Québécois nationalism and the ultra-conservative Catholic social doctrine, to which the Church would maintain dominance in political and social life in Quebec. In the 1920s–1950s, this form of traditionalist Catholic nationalism became known as clerico-nationalism.


1950s

In the time leading up to the radical changes of the
Quiet Revolution The Quiet Revolution (french: Révolution tranquille) was a period of intense socio-political and socio-cultural change in French Canada which started in Quebec after the election of 1960, characterized by the effective secularization of govern ...
the people of Quebec placed more importance on traditional values in life which included going back to their nationalistic roots. Nationalism at this time meant restoring the old regime and going back to the concept of a French-Canadian nation built upon Catholicism as it was in the past. The church and state were intertwined and the church greatly dictated legislature falling under the matters of the state. Nationalism also represented conservation, and in that, not being influenced by the outside world but rather staying within their own borders without room for exploration. Quebec was very closed minded wanting to keep their people and province untouched by the more progressive ideas from the rest of the world. Even in terms of careers, the church governed the state in this aspect and people were working conventional jobs such as in the agricultural industry. Quebec did not align with the fast-paced urban life of Western society that was reflected across the nation and other countries. The lack of great progression is believed to be attributed to the premier of the province at this time
Maurice Duplessis Maurice Le Noblet Duplessis (; April 20, 1890 – September 7, 1959), was a Canadian lawyer and politician who served as the 16th premier of Quebec. A conservative, nationalist, anti-Communist, anti-unionist and fervent Catholic, he and hi ...
. Maurice Duplessis returned to win the 1944 election and stayed in the position of premier of Quebec for fifteen years whilst being the leader of the conservative Union Nationale party. The Union Nationale party valued and upheld the traditional definition of nationalism. This meant the province would upkeep its long-established ways of operating with changes being made only within the scope of the conventional values. Because of this, the Union Nationale party was favored by those who wanted to stick to the accustomed lifestyle and disliked by those who wanted a progressive province being brought into the North American culture. Duplessis's main ideas to transform Quebec were through rapid industrialization, urbanization and a greater and faster development of the province's natural resources. English speakers of the province hoped that industrialization and urbanization would replace the outdated French Canadian society. These changes launched French Canadians into the urban and industrial way of life. There were new opportunities created to provide economic and social stability but by doing so, decreased the importance and significance placed upon cultural and linguistic survival. However, the deaths of Maurice Duplessis in September 1959 and his successor Paul Sauve in January 1960 set in motion the final end to the old traditional definition of Quebec nationalism in the 1950s. A new leader, Quebec and ideology of nationalism would emerge and sweep across the province finally providing French-Canadians their greatly awaited need for change.


1960s

The events leading up to the 1960s were catalysts that would tear down and reconstruct the foundation of what it meant to be a Quebec Nationalist. Nationalism in the 1960s represented a completely new mantra unlike the aged significance placed upon it in the 1950s. The 1960s in Quebec was a period of the Quiet Revolution, the Liberal Party of Canada the election of the Parti Québécois, a site of a thriving economy and the beginning of a variety of independent movements. During this time, Quebec was a place of enlightenment, there were changes in the society, values, and economy. This was a time of radical thinking, culture and ideologies, one ideology would finally emerge after centuries of dormancy. Quebec would change from its old fashioned roots and be brought into the progressive mainstream century. A main difference was the secularization of the Catholic Church, practiced by most French Canadians from the province itself. Unlike in the 1950s under Duplessis, the church and state were now separate entities removing the strict control the old fashioned ways of the church had over institutions. The shift gained the province its own independence. These ideologies took off after the victory of Jean Lesage's liberal party in the 1960 provincial election. The election of Jean Lesage and his liberal party finally ended the longstanding ancient regime the people of Quebec had been living under. It began the reinstitution of the outdated socioeconomic and political structures to fully modernize them once and for all. This movement would be known as the Quiet Revolution. The Quiet Revolution signified something different for Quebeckers but a common denominator was that both English and French speakers were happy with the end to Maurice Duplessis's conservative party the Union Nationale that brought much social and political repression. The Quiet Revolution beginning in the 1960s gathered momentum with the many reformations carried out by Jean Lesage including changes to the education, social welfare, hospitalization, hydro-electricity, regional development and greater francophone participation in the industrial sector. Quebec nationalism for the Francophones was on the rise at this time not only within the province but on a global scale as well. Quebec nationalism in the 1960s stemmed from the ideology of decolonization; this new type of nationalism was based on ideas happening on a global scale. Because of the new openness of the province, travelers and people of the church were encouraged to go and learn the ways of life in other parts of the world and then return to share, compare, and incorporate the ideologies into their lifestyle. The oppression of Francophones was also something that Lesage wanted to bring to light and change because of the longstanding cultural and society tension between the Francophones and Anglophones. Lesage had the desire to change the role that the state had over the province. He no longer wanted economic inferiority of French Canadians and the Francophone society, but rather evolving organized labor, educational reform, and the modernization of political process. There were many issues that the province had during this time due to the imbalance between the Francophones and Anglophones on a variety of levels. Even though the Francophones outnumbered the Anglophones, the Francophones were still seen as a minority. This oppression however dated further back than just the 1960s. The province has a history of colonization and conquest that is complex and multi layered. The past history of this province can be seen in the city's landscape marked with a variety of memoir commemorating the overtaking powers. The province's Francophones as well as ethnic and racial minority groups did not have any power, they were living in the poorest parts of cities. It was hard for these groups to progress in their careers or climb the socio-economic ladder. For Francophones it was difficult because success was geared towards the English speaker and prestigious institutions were English speaking and devalued the culture and language of the French. By the early 1960s a group of French Canadians from all classes were receiving proper education but only to go into careers in Anglophone dominated institutions. Avocation of the new form of nationalism was used to address the drastic conditions in the work place as well as living conditions. This was most apparent between the Francophones who believed in the new 1960s idea of nationalism and the predominantly English Canadian anti-nationalists. The goal of the new society was to overcome injustices for minority groups in everyday life. This sparked a number of movements such as the Black Power movement and Women's Rights Movement that were mainly seen in working-class neighbourhoods which gained publicity when journals, conferences and advocates fed into these movements. A movement of a new Quebec with a new meaning behind the word Nationalism would continue to change and progress overtime with the 1960s being the start of this change.


Contemporary Quebec nationalism

Understanding contemporary Quebec nationalism is difficult considering the ongoing debates on the political status of the province and its complex public opinion. No political option (outright independence,
sovereignty-association The Quebec sovereignty movement (french: Mouvement souverainiste du Québec) is a political movement whose objective is to achieve the sovereignty of Quebec, a province of Canada since 1867, including in all matters related to any provision of ...
, constitutional reforms, or signing on to the present
Canadian constitution The Constitution of Canada (french: Constitution du Canada) is the supreme law in Canada. It outlines Canada's system of government and the civil and human rights of those who are citizens of Canada and non-citizens in Canada. Its contents ar ...
) has achieved decisive majority support and contradictions remain within the Quebec polity. One debated subject that has often made the news is whether contemporary Quebec nationalism is still "ethnic" or if it is "linguistic" or "territorial". The notion of "
territorial nationalism Territorial nationalism describes a form of nationalism based on the belief that all inhabitants of a particular territory should share a common national identity, regardless of their ethnic, linguistic, religious, cultural and other differences. ...
" (promoted by all Quebec premiers since Jean Lesage) gathers the support of the majority of the sovereigntists and essentially all Quebec federalist nationalists. Debates on the nature of Quebec's nationalism are currently going on and various intellectuals from Quebec or other parts of Canada have published works on the subject, notably
Will Kymlicka William Kymlicka (; born 1962) is a Canadian political philosopher best known for his work on multiculturalism and animal ethics. He is currently Professor of Philosophy and Canada Research Chair in Political Philosophy at Queen's Universi ...
, professor of philosophy at Queen's University and Charles Blattberg and Michel Seymour, both professors at the .


Ethnic nationalism

Many people feel that Quebec nationalism and separatism is ethnic have often expressed their opinion that the sentiments of Quebec's nationalists are insular and parochial and concerned with preserving a population of white francophones within the province. Despite these accusations being denounced by many Quebec nationalists who see both the separatist and nationalist movement as multi-ethnic, there is much evidence to suggest that both movements are based on ethnicity, rather than on territory. An example of this is when
Premier of Quebec The premier of Quebec ( French: ''premier ministre du Québec'' (masculine) or ''première ministre du Québec'' (feminine)) is the head of government of the Canadian province of Quebec. The current premier of Quebec is François Legault of th ...
Jacques Parizeau Jacques Parizeau (; August 9, 1930June 1, 2015) was a Canadian politician and Québécois economist who was a noted Quebec sovereigntist and the 26th premier of Quebec from September 26, 1994, to January 29, 1996. Early life and career Parize ...
, commenting on the failure of the 1995 Quebec referendum said "It is true, it is true that we were beaten, but in the end, by what? By money and ethnic votes, essentially." (""). Another example of this was the implementation of Quebec's Bill 21, which sparked controversy after it banned people from wearing religious clothing in certain professions. This law hugely impacted the Muslim community in the province, with many citing it as proof of the movement's ethnic origins, and calling it Islamophobic, and discriminatory. Further controversy was sparked when most nationalist parties stated that the law was not Islamophobic, and instead stated that it was secular. Paul Plamondon, leader of the
Parti Québécois The Parti Québécois (; ; PQ) is a sovereignist and social democratic provincial political party in Quebec, Canada. The PQ advocates national sovereignty for Quebec involving independence of the province of Quebec from Canada and establishin ...
(PQ) called someone in the Quebec government out for saying the law was "supremacist" while talking about systemic racism, which caused even more controversy and a backlash to the PQ by the Muslim community, and by the federalists.https://twitter.com/PaulPlamondon/status/1349858502446096384 Quebec nationalism and separatism being ethnically based was further evidenced when the PQ held a protest in
Montreal Montreal ( ; officially Montréal, ) is the second-most populous city in Canada and most populous city in the Canadian province of Quebec. Founded in 1642 as '' Ville-Marie'', or "City of Mary", it is named after Mount Royal, the triple ...
on November 23, 2020, which called for the assimilation of immigrants, and for the strengthening on the French Language in the city. Less than 150 people turned out for the occasion, and by the PQ, as well as other nationalist and separatist parties refusing to acknowledge the existence of systemic racism in Quebec. The president of Quebec's human's rights commission, Philippe-André Tessier, a separatist, called the term ''systemic racism'' an "attack on the Quebec people". There are many signs that point towards the nationalist and separatist movements being ethnically based. There is little doubt that the post-1950s era witnessed an awakening of Quebecers' self-identity. The rural, conservative and
Catholic The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...
Quebec of the 19th and early 20th centuries has given way to a confident, cosmopolitan society that has many attributes of a modern, internationally recognized community with a unique culture worth preserving. The cultural character of Quebec nationalism has been affected by changes in the cultural identity of the province/nation more generally. Since the 1960s, these changes have included the secularism and other traits associated with the Quiet Revolution.


Linguistic nationalism

Another primary expression of nationalism in Quebec is the French language. People who feel that Quebec nationalism is linguistic have often expressed their opinion that Quebec nationalism includes a multi-ethnic or multicultural French-speaking majority (either as mother tongue or first language used in public). The entrenchment of the French language in Quebec has been a central goal of Quebec nationalism since the 1970s. In 1974, the Quebec Legislature passed the '' Official Language Act'' under Premier Robert Bourassa. This legislation made French the sole
official language An official language is a language given supreme status in a particular country, state, or other jurisdiction. Typically the term "official language" does not refer to the language used by a people or country, but by its government (e.g. judiciary, ...
of Quebec and the primary language of services, commercial signing, labour relations and business, education, and legislation and justice. In 1977, this ''Official Language Act'' was superseded by the ''
Charter of the French Language The ''Charter of the French Language'' (french: link=no, La charte de la langue française), also known in English as Bill 101, Law 101 (''french: link=no, Loi 101''), or Quebec French Preference Law, is a law in the Provinces and territories of ...
'', which expanded and entrenched French within Quebec. This charter was passed by the first
Parti Québécois The Parti Québécois (; ; PQ) is a sovereignist and social democratic provincial political party in Quebec, Canada. The PQ advocates national sovereignty for Quebec involving independence of the province of Quebec from Canada and establishin ...
government of Premier René Lévesque, and its goal was "to make French the language of Government and the Law, as well as the normal and everyday language of work, instruction, communication, commerce and business." After a 45-year hiatus in language legislation in Quebec, the provincial legislature passed '' An Act respecting French, the official and common language of Québec'' in 2022. This act greatly expanded the requirement to speak French in many public and private settings. The preliminary notes of the bill make its purpose clear: "the purpose of this bill is to affirm that the only official language of Québec is French. It also affirms that French is the common language of the Québec nation." This act amended the ''Charter of the French language'' and introduced "new fundamental language rights," such as reinforcing French as the language of legislation, justice, civil administration, professional orders, employers, commerce and business, and educational instruction. Premier
François Legault François Legault (; born May 26, 1957) is a Canadian politician serving as the 32nd premier of Quebec since 2018. A member of the Coalition Avenir Québec (CAQ), he has led the party since its founding in 2011. Legault sits as a member of the ...
and his Coalition Avenir Québec government justified this as necessary to preserve the French language that is central to Quebec nationalism.


Recognition of the nation by Ottawa

On October 21, 2006, during the General Special Council of the Quebec wing of the Liberal Party of Canada initiated a national debate by adopting with more than 80% support a resolution calling on the Government of Canada to recognize the Quebec nation within Canada. A month later, the said resolution was taken to Parliament first by the , then by the Prime Minister of Canada, Stephen Harper. On November 27, 2006, the House of Commons of Canada passed a motion recognizing that the "Québécois form a
nation A nation is a community of people formed on the basis of a combination of shared features such as language, history, ethnicity, culture and/or society. A nation is thus the collective Identity (social science), identity of a group of people unde ...
within a united Canada". In 2021,
François Legault François Legault (; born May 26, 1957) is a Canadian politician serving as the 32nd premier of Quebec since 2018. A member of the Coalition Avenir Québec (CAQ), he has led the party since its founding in 2011. Legault sits as a member of the ...
's government in Quebec proposed to amend the
Charter of the French Language The ''Charter of the French Language'' (french: link=no, La charte de la langue française), also known in English as Bill 101, Law 101 (''french: link=no, Loi 101''), or Quebec French Preference Law, is a law in the Provinces and territories of ...
and the provincial constitution to more strongly entrench French as the sole official language. In response to this, the initiated a motion in the House of Commons endorsing the constitutionality of Legault's initiatives and reasserting Quebecers' nationhood. The Commons passed the motion 281–2, with 36 abstentions.


Present-day nationalism

Quebec nationalism today and what it means to , Quebecers, ,
Canadians Canadians (french: Canadiens) are people identified with the country of Canada. This connection may be residential, legal, historical or cultural. For most Canadians, many (or all) of these connections exist and are collectively the source of ...
, and others differs based on the individual. Nationalism today is more open than what it was in the past in some ways. A common theme that can be seen is the attachment that have towards their province, and the country of Canada. The majority of people in Quebec identify as both and Canadian, and show great pride in celebrating both their province and their country on their respective days.


Nationalist groups


Political parties and groupings

* Union Nationale (1936-1981, The party's ideology is half nationalist but also half Quebec autonomist) *
Parti Québécois The Parti Québécois (; ; PQ) is a sovereignist and social democratic provincial political party in Quebec, Canada. The PQ advocates national sovereignty for Quebec involving independence of the province of Quebec from Canada and establishin ...
(1968–present) *
Québec Solidaire Québec solidaire (QS; ) is a democratic socialist and sovereigntist political party in Quebec, Canada. The party and media outlets in Canada usually use the name "Québec solidaire" in both French and English, but the party's name is sometimes ...
(2006–present) * Parti Indépendantiste (2007–2014) * Option nationale (2012–2018, later fused with Québec Solidaire) * Bloc Québécois (1991–present) * Québec Debout (2018) * Coalition Avenir Québec (2012–present, The party's ideology is mostly nationalist but also promotes Quebec autonomism and some
Canadian federalism Canadian federalism () involves the current nature and historical development of the federal system in Canada. Canada is a federation with eleven components: the national Government of Canada and ten provincial governments. All eleven ...
) * OUI-Québec


Civic organizations

* Saint-Jean-Baptiste Societies * Mouvement national des Québécois * Mouvement des Jeunes Souverainistes


Academic and intellectual associations

* Les Intellectuels pour la souveraineté (IPSO) (Intellectuals for Sovereignty) * Centre étudiant de recherche et d'action nationale (CERAN) (Student research and national action centre) * Institut de recherche sur l'autodétermination des peuples et les indépendances nationales (IRAI) (Research Institute on Self-Determination of Peoples and National Independence)


Nationalists newspapers and publications

* Le Jour *
Le Devoir ''Le Devoir'' (, "Duty") is a French-language newspaper published in Montreal and distributed in Quebec and throughout Canada. It was founded by journalist and politician Henri Bourassa in 1910. ''Le Devoir'' is one of few independent large-c ...
* Le Québécois *
L'Action nationale ''L'Action nationale'' () is a French-language monthly published in Quebec, Canada. The magazine publishes critical analyses of Quebec's linguistic, social, cultural and economic realities. Since 1917, approximately 17,000 authors have appeared ...


Extremist, nativist and ultra-nationalist groups

* La Meute (2015–present) * Atalante * Fédération des Québécois de souche (Federation of native Québécois) * Storm Alliance


Left-wing nationalist groups

* Front de libération du Québec (Quebec Liberation Front)


Nationalist Slogans

* ''Maîtres chez nous'' ("Masters of our own house" a phrase coined by
Le Devoir ''Le Devoir'' (, "Duty") is a French-language newspaper published in Montreal and distributed in Quebec and throughout Canada. It was founded by journalist and politician Henri Bourassa in 1910. ''Le Devoir'' is one of few independent large-c ...
editor
André Laurendeau Joseph-Edmond-André Laurendeau (March 21, 1912 – June 1, 1968) was a journalist, politician, co-chair of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism, and playwright in Quebec, Canada. He is usually referred to as André Lauren ...
, and was the electoral slogan of the Liberal Party during the 1962 election. * *''Québécois de souche'' ("old-stock Quebecker"): Quebecer who can trace their ancestry back to the regime of
New France New France (french: Nouvelle-France) was the area colonized by France in North America, beginning with the exploration of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence by Jacques Cartier in 1534 and ending with the cession of New France to Great Britain and Spa ...
*''Québécois pure laine'': "true blue" or "dyed-in-the-wool" Quebecker *''Le Québec aux Québécois'' ("Quebec for Québécois", or "Quebec for Quebecers"): slogan sometimes chanted at Quebec nationalist rallies or protests. This slogan can be controversial, as it might be interpreted both as a call for a Quebec controlled by ''Québécois pure laine'', with possible xenophobic connotations, or as a call for a Quebec controlled by the inhabitants of the province of Quebec, and free from outside interference.


See also

* Canadian nationalism *
French nationalism French nationalism () usually manifests as cultural nationalism, promoting the cultural unity of France. History French nationalism emerged from its numerous wars with England, which involved the reconquest of the territories that made up Fr ...
*
History of Quebec Quebec was first called ''Canada'' between 1534 and 1763. It was the most developed colony of New France as well as New France's centre, responsible for a variety of dependencies (ex. Acadia, Plaisance, Louisiana, and the Pays d'en Haut). Co ...
* Lists of active separatist movements *
Nationalism Nationalism is an idea and movement that holds that the nation should be congruent with the state. As a movement, nationalism tends to promote the interests of a particular nation (as in a group of people), Smith, Anthony. ''Nationalism: The ...
*
Partition of Quebec The partition of Quebec refers to the secession of regions of the province of Quebec, rather than to partitions in a strict political sense. It is usually discussed as a possibility in the event of Quebec secession from Canada. It was not a key ...
*
Politics of Canada The politics of Canada function within a framework of parliamentary democracy and a federal system of parliamentary government with strong democratic traditions. Canada is a constitutional monarchy, in which the monarch is head of state. In pr ...
* Politics of Quebec * Quebec federalist ideology *
Quebec sovereignty movement The Quebec sovereignty movement (french: Mouvement souverainiste du Québec) is a political movement whose objective is to achieve the sovereignty of Quebec, a province of Canada since 1867, including in all matters related to any provision o ...
*
1980 Quebec referendum The 1980 Quebec independence referendum was the first referendum in Quebec on the place of Quebec within Canada and whether Quebec should pursue a path toward sovereignty. The referendum was called by Quebec's Parti Québécois (PQ) government, whi ...
* 1995 Quebec referendum *
Quiet Revolution The Quiet Revolution (french: Révolution tranquille) was a period of intense socio-political and socio-cultural change in French Canada which started in Quebec after the election of 1960, characterized by the effective secularization of govern ...
* Clarity Act


Notes


References

*Claude Bélange
Quebec nationalism


In English


Books

* Barreto, Amílcar Antonio (1998). ''Language, Elites, and the State. Nationalism in Puerto Rico and Quebec'', Greenwood, 165 p. ()
excerpt
* Berberoglu, Berch, ed., (1995). ''The National Question: Nationalism, Ethnic Conflict, and Self-Determination in the 20th Century'', Temple University Press, 329 p. ()
excerpt
* Buchanan, Allen. ''Secession: The Morality of Political Divorce from Fort Sumter to Lithuania and Quebec'' (1991) * Carens, Joseph H., ed. (1995), ''Is Quebec Nationalism Just?: Perspectives from Anglophone Canada'', Montreal, McGill-Queen's University Press, 225 p. ()
excerpt
* Clift, Dominique. ''Quebec nationalism in crisis'' (McGill-Queen's Press-MQUP, 1982). * Cook, Ramsay (2003). ''Watching Quebec. Selected Essays'', Montreal, McGill-Queen's Press, 225 p. ()
excerpt
* Gagnon, Alain (2004). ''Québec. State and Society'', Broadview Press, 500 p. ()
excerpt
* Gougeon, Gilles. (1994). ''A History of Quebec Nationalism'', Lorimer, 118 p. ()
except
* Henderson, Ailsa (2007). ''Hierarchies of Belonging: National Identity and Political Culture in Scotland and Quebec'', Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 250 p. () * Keating, Michael (1996). ''Nations Against the State: The New Politics of Nationalism in Quebec, Catalonia, and Scotland'', St. Martins Press, 260 p. () * Kymlicka, Will, and Kathryn Walker, eds. ''Rooted cosmopolitanism: Canada and the world'' (UBC Press, 2012). * McEwen, Nicola (2006). ''Nationalism and the State: Welfare and Identity in Scotland and Quebec'', Brussels: P.I.E.-Peter Lang, 212 p. () * Mann, Susan (2002). ''The Dream of Nation: A Social and Intellectual History of Quebec'', McGill-Queen's University Press; 2nd edition, 360 p. ()
excerpt
* Poliquin, Daniel (2001). ''In the Name of the Father: An Essay on Quebec nationalism'', Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre, 222 p. () * Requejo, Ferran. (2001). ''Democracy and National Pluralism'', 182 p. ()
excerpt
* Rioux, X. Hubert. ''Small Nations, High Ambitions: Economic Nationalism and Venture Capital in Quebec and Scotland'' (U of Toronto Press, 2020). * Rivault, Fabrice & Hervé Rivet. (2008). "The Quebec Nation: From Informal Recognition to Enshrinement in the Constitution" in ''Reconquering Canada: Quebec Federalists Speak Up for Change'', Edited by André Pratte, Douglas & McIntyre, Toronto, 344 p. ()
link
* Seymour, Michel (2004). ''Fate of the Nation State'', Montreal: McGill-Queen's Press, 432 p. ()
excerpt
* Venne, Michel (2001). ''Vive Quebec! New Thinking and New Approaches to the Quebec Nation'', James Toronto: Lorimer & Company, 221 p. ()
excerpt


Newspapers and journals

* Abelson, Donald, et al. "Millennial and Gen Z francophones don't value Quebec nationalism: In stark contrast to baby boomers who not only identify as Quebecers first but also believe the provincial government best represents their interests
''Maclean's'' August 26, 2020
* Banting, Keith, and Will Kymlicka. "Canadian Multiculturalism: Global Anxieties and Local Debates." ''British Journal of Canadian Studies'' 23.1 (2010
online
* Blanchet, Alexandre, and Mike Medeiros. "The secessionist spectre: the influence of authoritarianism, nativism and populism on support for Quebec independence." ''Nations and nationalism'' 25.3 (2019): 803-821. * Brie, Evelyne, and Catherine Ouellet. "Exposure to English as a determinant of support for Quebec independence in the 2018 Quebec elections." ''French Politics'' (2020). * Couture Gagnon, Alexandre, and Diane Saint-Pierre. "Identity, Nationalism, and Cultural and Linguistic Policies in Québec." ''Journal of Arts Management, Law, and Society'' 50.2 (2020): 115-130. * Couture, Jocelyne, Kai Nielsen, and Michel Seymour (ed). "Rethinking Nationalism", in ''Canadian Journal of Philosophy'', Supplementary Volume 22, 1996, 704 p. () * Ferland, Benjamin, and Luc Turgeon. "Understanding Majority Attitudes toward Minority Nations in Multinational Federations: The Case of Canada." ''Publius: The Journal of Federalism'' 50.2 (2020): 188-212. * Gareau, Paul L. "The Army of Mary: Quebec Nationalism and Catholic Heterodoxy." in ''The Mystical Geography of Quebec'' (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2020) pp. 55–83. * Imbert, Patrick. "Francophones, Multiculturalism and Interculturalism in Canada, Quebec and Europe." in ''Citizenship and Belonging in France and North America'' (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2020) pp. 33–53. * Kymlicka, Will. "Quebec: a modern, pluralist, distinct society", in ''Dissent'', American Multiculturalism in the International Arena, Fall 1998, p. 73–79
archived version
* Kymlicka, Will. "Canadian multiculturalism in historical and comparative perspective: Is Canada unique." ''Forum Constititionell'' 13#1 (2003): 1-8
online
* Kymlicka, Will. "Multiculturalism and Citizenship-Building in Canada." ''CPRN Discussion Paper'' (2001): 47
online
* Kymlicka, Will. "Being Canadian." ''Government and opposition'' 38.3 (2003): 357-38
online
* McGrane, David, and Loleen Berdahl. "Reconceptualizing Canadian Federal Political Culture: Examining Differences between Quebec and the Rest of Canada." ''Publius: The Journal of Federalism'' 50.1 (2020): 109-13
online
* Rocher, François. "The Evolving Parameters of Quebec Nationalism", in ''JMS: International Journal on Multicultural Societies''. 2002, vol. 4, no.1, pp. 74–96. UNESCO. (ISSN 1817-4574) * Rocher, François. "The Life and Death of an Issue: Canadian Political Science and Quebec Politics." ''Canadian Journal of Political Science'' 52.4 (2019): 631-655
online
* Venne, Michel. "Re-thinking the Quebec nation", in ''Policy Options'', January–February 2000, pp. 53–60
online


In French


Books

* Bock-Côté, Mathieu (2007). ''La dénationalisation tranquille : mémoire, identité et multiculturalisme dans le Québec postréférendaire'', Montréal: Boréal, 211 p. () * Ryan, Pascale (2006). ''Penser la nation. La ligue d'action nationale 1917–1960'', Montréal: Leméac, 324 p. () * Montpetit, Édouard (2005). ''Réflexions sur la question nationale: Édouard Montpetit; textes choisis et présentés par Robert Leroux'', Saint-Laurent: Bibliothèque québécoise, 181 p. () * Lamonde, Yvan (2004). ''Histoire sociale des idées au Québec, 1896–1929'', Montréal: Éditions Fides, 336 p. () * Bock, Michel (2004). ''Quand la nation débordait les frontières. Les minorités françaises dans la pensée de Lionel Groulx'', Montréal: Hurtubise HMH, 452 p. * Bellavance, Marcel (2004). ''Le Québec au siècle des nationalités. Essai d’histoire comparée'', Montréal: VLB, 250 p. * Bouchard, Gérard (2004). ''La pensée impuissante : échecs et mythes nationaux canadiens-français, 1850–1960'', Montréal: Boréal, 319 p. () * Bouchard, Catherine (2002). ''Les nations québécoises dans l'Action nationale : de la décolonisation à la mondialisation'', Sainte-Foy: Presses de l'Université Laval, 146 p. () * Sarra-Bournet, Michel ed., (2001). ''Les nationalismes au Québec, du XIXe au XXIe siècle'', Québec: Presses de L’Université Laval, 2001 * Diane, Lamoureux (2001). ''L'amère patrie : féminisme et nationalisme dans le Québec contemporain'', Montréal: Éditions du Remue-ménage () * Monière, Denis (2001). ''Pour comprendre le nationalisme au Québec et ailleurs'', Montréal: Presses de l'Université de Montréal 148 pé () * Denise Helly and Nicolas Van Schendel (2001). ''Appartenir au Québec : Citoyenneté, nation et société civile : Enquête à Montréal, 1995'', Québec: Les Presses de l'Université Laval
editor
* Brière, Marc (2001). ''Le Québec, quel Québec? : dialogues avec Charles Taylor, Claude Ryan et quelques autres sur le libéralisme et le nationalisme québécois'', Montréal: Stanké, 325 p. () * Paquin, Stéphane (2001). ''La revanche des petites nations : le Québec, l'Écosse et la Catalogne face à la mondialisation'', Montréal: VLB, 219 p. () * Lamonde, Yvan (2000). ''Histoire sociale des idées au Québec, 1760–1896'', Montréal: Éditions Fides, 576 p. ()
online
* Venne, Michel, ed., (2000). ''Penser la nation québécoise'', Montréal: Québec Amérique, Collection Débats * Brière, Marc (2000). ''Point de départ! : essai sur la nation québécoise'', Montréal : Hurtubise HMH, 222 p. () * Seymour, Michel (1999). ''La nation en question'', L'Hexagone, * Seymour, Michel, ed. (1999). ''Nationalité, citoyenneté et solidarité'', Montréal: Liber, 508 p. () * Sarra-Bournet, Michel ed., (1998). ''Le pays de tous les Québécois. Diversité culturelle et souveraineté'', Montréal: VLB Éditeur, 253 p. * Martel, Marcel (1997). ''Le deuil d'un pays imaginé : rêves, luttes et déroute du Canada français : les rapports entre le Québec et la francophonie canadienne, 1867–1975'', Ottawa: Presses de l'Université d'Ottawa, 203 p. () * Keating, Michael (1997). ''Les défis du nationalisme moderne : Québec, Catalogne, Écosse'', Montréal: Presses de l'Université de Montréal, 296 p. () * Bourque, Gilles (1996). ''L'identité fragmentée : nation et citoyenneté dans les débats constitutionnels canadiens, 1941–1992'', Saint-Laurent: Fides, 383 p. () * Moreau, François (1995). ''Le Québec, une nation opprimée'', Hull : Vents d'ouest, 181 p () * Ignatieff, Michael (1993). ''Blood & belonging : journeys into the new nationalism'', Toronto : Viking, 201 p. () * Gougeon, Gilles (1993). ''Histoire du nationalisme québécois. Entrevues avec sept spécialistes'', Québec: VLB Éditeur * Roy, Fernande (1993). ''Histoire des idéologies au Québec aux XIXe et XXe siècles'', Montréal: Boréal, 128 p. () * Balthazar, Louis. "L'évolution du nationalisme québécois", in ''Le Québec en jeu'', ed. Gérard Daigle and Guy Rocher, pp. 647 à 667, Montréal: Les Presses de l’Université de Montréal, 1992, 812 p.


Newspapers and journals

* Robitaille, Antoine.
La nation, pour quoi faire?
, in ''Le Devoir'', November 25, 2006 * Gueydan-Lacroix, Saël.
Le nationalisme au Canada anglais : une réalité cachée
, in ''L'Agora'', April 10, 2003 * Courtois, Stéphane. "Habermas et la question du nationalisme : le cas du Québec", in ''Philosophiques'', vol. 27, no 2, Autumn 2000 * Seymour, Michel.
Un nationalisme non fondé sur l'ethnicité
, in ''Le Devoir'', 26–27 April 1999 * Kelly, Stéphane.
De la laine du pays de 1837, la pure et l'impure
, in ''L'Encyclopédie de l'Agora'', Cahiers d'histoire du Québec au XXe siècle, no 6, 1996 * Beauchemin, Jacques. "Nationalisme québécois et crise du lien social", in ''Cahiers de recherche sociologique'', n° 25, 1995, pp. 101–123. Montréal: Département de sociologie, UQAM. * Dufresne, Jacques.
La cartographie du génome nationaliste québécois
, dans ''L'Agora'', vol. 1, no. 10, July/August 1994. * Seymour, Michel. "Une nation peut-elle se donner la constitution de son choix?", in ''Philosophiques'', Numero Special, Vol. 19, No. 2 (Autumn 1992) * Unknown.
L'ultramontanisme
, in ''Les Patriotes de 1837@1838'', May 20, 2000 * Roy-Blais, Caroline.
La montée du pouvoir clérical après l’échec patriote
, in ''Les Patriotes de 1837@1838'', 2006-12-03


Further reading

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * {{DEFAULTSORT:Quebec Nationalism