Q-switching, sometimes known as giant pulse formation or Q-spoiling, is a technique by which a

laser A laser is a device that emits light through a process of optical amplification based on the stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation. The word "laser" is an acronym for "light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation". The fi ...

can be made to produce a pulsed output beam. The technique allows the production of light pulses with extremely high (

gigawatt The watt (symbol: W) is the unit of power or radiant flux in the International System of Units (SI), equal to 1 joule per second or 1 kg⋅m2⋅s−3. It is used to quantify the rate of energy transfer. The watt is named after James Wat ...

) peak

power Power most often refers to: * Power (physics), meaning "rate of doing work" ** Engine power, the power put out by an engine ** Electric power * Power (social and political), the ability to influence people or events ** Abusive power Power may a ...

, much higher than would be produced by the same laser if it were operating in a continuous wave (constant output) mode. Compared to

modelocking Mode locking is a technique in optics by which a laser can be made to produce pulses of light of extremely short duration, on the order of picoseconds (10−12 s) or femtoseconds (10−15 s). A laser operated in this way is sometimes r ...

, another technique for pulse generation with lasers, Q-switching leads to much lower pulse repetition rates, much higher pulse energies, and much longer pulse durations. The two techniques are sometimes applied together. Q-switching was first proposed in 1958 by

Gordon Gould Gordon Gould (July 17, 1920 – September 16, 2005) was an American physicist who is sometimes credited with the invention of the laser and the optical amplifier. (Credit for the invention of the laser is disputed, since Charles Townes and ...

, p. 93. and independently discovered and demonstrated in 1961 or 1962 by R.W. Hellwarth and F.J. McClung at

Hughes Research Laboratories Hughes may refer to: People * Hughes (surname) * Hughes (given name) Places Antarctica * Hughes Range (Antarctica), Ross Dependency * Mount Hughes, Oates Land * Hughes Basin, Oates Land * Hughes Bay, Graham Land * Hughes Bluff, Victori ...

using electrically switched

Kerr cell The Kerr effect, also called the quadratic electro-optic (QEO) effect, is a change in the refractive index of a material in response to an applied electric field. The Kerr effect is distinct from the Pockels effect in that the induced index chan ...

shutters in a

ruby laser A ruby laser is a solid-state laser that uses a synthetic ruby crystal as its gain medium. The first working laser was a ruby laser made by Theodore H. "Ted" Maiman at Hughes Research Laboratories on May 16, 1960. Ruby lasers produce pulses of c ...

. Optical nonlinearities such as Q-switching were fully explained by

Nicolaas Bloembergen Nicolaas Bloembergen (March 11, 1920 – September 5, 2017) was a Dutch-American physicist and Nobel laureate, recognized for his work in developing driving principles behind nonlinear optics for laser spectroscopy. During his career, he was a p ...

, who won the

Nobel prize The Nobel Prizes ( ; sv, Nobelpriset ; no, Nobelprisen ) are five separate prizes that, according to Alfred Nobel's will of 1895, are awarded to "those who, during the preceding year, have conferred the greatest benefit to humankind." Alfr ...

in 1981 for this work.

Principle of Q-switching

Q-switching is achieved by putting some type of variable attenuator inside the laser's

optical resonator An optical cavity, resonating cavity or optical resonator is an arrangement of mirrors or other optical elements that forms a cavity resonator for light waves. Optical cavities are a major component of lasers, surrounding the gain medium and provi ...

. When the attenuator is functioning, light which leaves the

gain medium The active laser medium (also called gain medium or lasing medium) is the source of optical gain within a laser. The gain results from the stimulated emission of photons through electronic or molecular transitions to a lower energy state from a h ...

does not return, and lasing cannot begin. This attenuation inside the cavity corresponds to a decrease in the '' Q factor'' or ''quality factor'' of the

. A high Q factor corresponds to low resonator losses per roundtrip, and vice versa. The variable attenuator is commonly called a "Q-switch", when used for this purpose. Initially the laser medium is pumped while the Q-switch is set to prevent feedback of light into the gain medium (producing an optical resonator with low Q). This produces a

population inversion In science, specifically statistical mechanics, a population inversion occurs while a system (such as a group of atoms or molecules) exists in a state in which more members of the system are in higher, excited states than in lower, unexcited energy ...

, but laser operation cannot yet occur since there is no feedback from the resonator. Since the rate of stimulated emission is dependent on the amount of light entering the medium, the amount of

energy In physics, energy (from Ancient Greek: ἐνέργεια, ''enérgeia'', “activity”) is the quantitative property that is transferred to a body or to a physical system, recognizable in the performance of work and in the form of hea ...

stored in the gain medium increases as the medium is pumped. Due to losses from spontaneous emission and other processes, after a certain time the stored energy will reach some maximum level; the medium is said to be ''gain saturated''. At this point, the Q-switch device is quickly changed from low to high Q, allowing feedback and the process of

optical amplification An optical amplifier is a device that amplifies an optical signal directly, without the need to first convert it to an electrical signal. An optical amplifier may be thought of as a laser without an optical cavity, or one in which feedback from ...

by stimulated emission to begin. Because of the large amount of energy already stored in the gain medium, the intensity of light in the laser resonator builds up very quickly; this also causes the energy stored in the medium to be depleted almost as quickly. The net result is a short pulse of light output from the laser, known as a ''giant pulse'', which may have a very high peak intensity. There are two main types of Q-switching:

Active Q-switching

Here, the Q-switch is an externally controlled variable attenuator. This may be a mechanical device such as a shutter, chopper wheel, or spinning mirror/prism placed inside the cavity, or (more commonly) it may be some form of

modulator In electronics and telecommunications, modulation is the process of varying one or more properties of a periodic waveform, called the ''carrier signal'', with a separate signal called the ''modulation signal'' that typically contains informatio ...

such as an acousto–optic device, a

magneto-optic effect A magneto-optic effect is any one of a number of phenomena in which an electromagnetic wave propagates through a medium that has been altered by the presence of a quasistatic magnetic field. In such a medium, which is also called gyrotropic or ...

device or an

electro-optic Electro–optics is a branch of electrical engineering, electronic engineering, materials science, and material physics involving components, electronic devices such as lasers, laser diodes, LEDs, waveguides, etc. which operate by the propag ...

device a

Pockels cell The Pockels effect or Pockels electro-optic effect, named after Friedrich Carl Alwin Pockels (who studied the effect in 1893), changes or produces birefringence in an optical medium induced by an electric field. In the Pockels effect, also known ...

. The reduction of losses (increase of Q) is triggered by an external event, typically an electrical signal. The pulse repetition rate can therefore be externally controlled. Modulators generally allow a faster transition from low to high Q, and provide better control. An additional advantage of modulators is that the rejected light may be coupled out of the cavity and can be used for something else. Alternatively, when the modulator is in its low-Q state, an externally generated beam can be coupled ''into'' the cavity through the modulator. This can be used to "seed" the cavity with a beam that has desired characteristics (such as

transverse mode A transverse mode of electromagnetic radiation is a particular electromagnetic field pattern of the radiation in the plane perpendicular (i.e., transverse) to the radiation's propagation direction. Transverse modes occur in radio waves and microwav ...

or wavelength). When the Q is raised, lasing builds up from the initial seed, producing a Q-switched pulse that has characteristics inherited from the seed.

Passive Q-switching

In this case, the Q-switch is a

saturable absorber Saturable absorption is a property of materials where the absorption of light decreases with increasing light intensity. Most materials show some saturable absorption, but often only at very high optical intensities (close to the optical damage ...

, a material whose transmission increases when the intensity of light exceeds some threshold. The material may be an ion-doped crystal like Cr:YAG, which is used for Q-switching of Nd:YAG lasers, a bleachable dye, or a passive

semiconductor A semiconductor is a material which has an electrical conductivity value falling between that of a conductor, such as copper, and an insulator, such as glass. Its resistivity falls as its temperature rises; metals behave in the opposite way. ...

device. Initially, the loss of the absorber is high, but still low enough to permit some lasing once a large amount of energy is stored in the gain medium. As the laser power increases, it saturates the absorber, i.e., rapidly reduces the resonator loss, so that the power can increase even faster. Ideally, this brings the absorber into a state with low losses to allow efficient extraction of the stored energy by the laser pulse. After the pulse, the absorber recovers to its high-loss state before the gain recovers, so that the next pulse is delayed until the energy in the gain medium is fully replenished. The pulse repetition rate can only indirectly be controlled, e.g. by varying the laser's pump power and the amount of saturable absorber in the cavity. Direct control of the repetition rate can be achieved by using a pulsed pump source as well as passive Q-switching.

Variants

Regenerative amplifier. Red line: Laser beam. Red box: Gain medium. Top: AOM-based design. Bottom: The Pockel's cell-based design needs thin film polarizers. The direction of the emitted pulse depends on the timing. Jitter can be reduced by not reducing the Q by as much, so that a small amount of light can still circulate in the cavity. This provides a "seed" of light that can aid in the buildup of the next Q-switched pulse. With

cavity dumping Cavity may refer to: Biology and healthcare *Body cavity, a fluid-filled space in many animals where organs typically develop **Gastrovascular cavity, the primary organ of digestion and circulation in cnidarians and flatworms * Dental cavity or to ...

, the cavity end mirrors are 100% reflective, so that no output beam is produced when the Q is high. Instead, the Q-switch is used to "dump" the beam out of the cavity after a time delay. The cavity Q goes from low to high to start the laser buildup, and then goes from high to low to "dump" the beam from the cavity all at once. This produces a shorter output pulse than regular Q-switching. Electro-optic modulators are normally used for this, since they can easily be made to function as a near-perfect beam "switch" to couple the beam out of the cavity. The modulator that dumps the beam may be the same modulator that Q-switches the cavity, or a second (possibly identical) modulator. A dumped cavity is more complicated to align than simple Q-switching, and may need a

control loop A control loop is the fundamental building block of industrial control systems. It consists of all the physical components and control functions necessary to automatically adjust the value of a measured process variable (PV) to equal the value of ...

to choose the best time at which to dump the beam from the cavity. In regenerative amplification, an optical amplifier is placed inside a Q-switched cavity. Pulses of light from another laser (the "master oscillator") are injected into the cavity by lowering the Q to allow the pulse to enter and then increasing the Q to confine the pulse to the cavity where it can be amplified by repeated passes through the gain medium. The pulse is then allowed to leave the cavity via another Q switch.

Typical performance

A typical Q-switched laser (e.g. a Nd:YAG laser) with a resonator length of e.g. 10 cm can produce light pulses of several tens of

nanoseconds A nanosecond (ns) is a unit of time in the International System of Units (SI) equal to one billionth of a second, that is, of a second, or 10 seconds. The term combines the SI prefix ''nano-'' indicating a 1 billionth submultiple of an SI unit ( ...

duration. Even when the average power is well below 1 W, the peak power can be many kilowatts. Large-scale laser systems can produce Q-switched pulses with energies of many joules and peak powers in the gigawatt region. On the other hand, passively Q-switched microchip lasers (with very short resonators) have generated pulses with durations far below one nanosecond and pulse repetition rates from hundreds of

hertz The hertz (symbol: Hz) is the unit of frequency in the International System of Units (SI), equivalent to one event (or cycle) per second. The hertz is an SI derived unit whose expression in terms of SI base units is s−1, meaning that o ...

to several megahertz (MHz)

Applications

Q-switched lasers are often used in applications which demand high laser intensities in nanosecond pulses, such as metal cutting or pulsed

holography Holography is a technique that enables a wavefront to be recorded and later re-constructed. Holography is best known as a method of generating real three-dimensional images, but it also has a wide range of other applications. In principle, i ...

Nonlinear optics Nonlinear optics (NLO) is the branch of optics that describes the behaviour of light in ''nonlinear media'', that is, media in which the polarization density P responds non-linearly to the electric field E of the light. The non-linearity is typic ...

often takes advantage of the high peak powers of these lasers, offering applications such as

3D optical data storage 3D optical data storage is any form of optical data storage in which information can be recorded or read with three-dimensional resolution (as opposed to the two-dimensional resolution afforded, for example, by CD). This innovation has the pot ...

and 3D microfabrication. However, Q-switched lasers can also be used for measurement purposes, such as for distance measurements (

range finding Length measurement, distance measurement, or range measurement (ranging) refers to the many ways in which length, distance, or slant range, range can be measurement, measured. The most commonly used approaches are the rulers, followed by transit ...

) by measuring the time it takes for the pulse to get to some target and the reflected light to get back to the sender. It can be also used in chemical dynamic study, e.g. temperature jump relaxation study. Q-switched lasers are also used to remove

tattoo A tattoo is a form of body modification made by inserting tattoo ink, dyes, and/or pigments, either indelible or temporary, into the dermis layer of the skin to form a design. Tattoo artists create these designs using several tattooing ...

s by shattering ink pigments into particles that are cleared by the body's lymphatic system. Full removal can take between six and twenty treatments depending on the amount and colour of ink, spaced at least a month apart, using different

wavelength In physics, the wavelength is the spatial period of a periodic wave—the distance over which the wave's shape repeats. It is the distance between consecutive corresponding points of the same phase on the wave, such as two adjacent crests, t ...

s for different coloured inks. Nd:YAG lasers are currently the most favoured lasers due to their high peak powers, high repetition rates and relatively low costs. In 2013 a picosecond laser was introduced based on clinical research which appears to show better clearance with 'difficult' colours such as green and light blue. Q-switched lasers can also be used to remove dark spots and fix other skin pigmentation issues.

References

{{Lasers Laser science