Qutb ud-Din Aibak ( fa, قطبالدین ایبک), (1150 – 14 November 1210) was a
Turkic
Turkic may refer to:
* anything related to the country of Turkey
* Turkic languages, a language family of at least thirty-five documented languages
** Turkic alphabets (disambiguation)
** Turkish language, the most widely spoken Turkic language
* ...
general of the
Ghurid
The Ghurid dynasty (also spelled Ghorids; fa, دودمان غوریان, translit=Dudmân-e Ğurīyân; self-designation: , ''Šansabānī'') was a Persianate dynasty and a clan of presumably eastern Iranian Tajik origin, which ruled from the ...
king
Muhammad Ghori. He was in charge of the Ghurid territories in northern India, and after Muhammad Ghori's assassination in 1206, he established the
Delhi Sultanate
The Delhi Sultanate was an Islamic empire based in Delhi that stretched over large parts of the Indian subcontinent for 320 years (1206–1526). (1206–1526), and started the
Mamluk dynasty, which would rule the Sultanate until 1290.
A native of
Turkestan
Turkestan, also spelled Turkistan ( fa, ترکستان, Torkestân, lit=Land of the Turks), is a historical region in Central Asia corresponding to the regions of Transoxiana and Xinjiang.
Overview
Known as Turan to the Persians, western Turke ...
, Aibak was sold into slavery as a child. He was purchased by a
Qazi at
Nishapur
Nishapur or officially Romanized as Neyshabur ( fa, ;Or also "نیشاپور" which is closer to its original and historic meaning though it is less commonly used by modern native Persian speakers. In Persian poetry, the name of this city is wr ...
in
Persia
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...
, where he learned archery and horse-riding among other skills. He was subsequently resold to Muhammad Ghori in
Ghazni
Ghazni ( prs, غزنی, ps, غزني), historically known as Ghaznain () or Ghazna (), also transliterated as Ghuznee, and anciently known as Alexandria in Opiana ( gr, Αλεξάνδρεια Ωπιανή), is a city in southeastern Afghanistan ...
, where he rose to the position of the officer of the royal stables. During the
Khwarazmian-Ghurid wars, he was captured by the scouts of
Sultan Shah; after the Ghurid victory, he was released and highly favoured by Muhammad Ghori.
After the Ghurid victory in the
Second Battle of Tarain
The Second Battle of Tarain was fought in 1192 between the Ghurid forces of Muhammad Ghuri and the Rajput Confederacy of Prithviraj Chauhan. It took place near Tarain (modern Taraori), which is , north of Delhi. The battle ended in a decisi ...
in 1192, Muhammad Ghori made Aibak in charge of his Indian territories. Aibak expanded the Ghurid power in northern India by conquering and raiding several places in the
Chahamana,
Gahadavala
The Gahadavala dynasty (IAST: Gāhaḍavālas), also Gahadavalas of Kanauj, was a Rajput dynasty that ruled parts of the present-day Indian states of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, during 11th and 12th centuries. Their capital was located at Varanas ...
,
Chaulukya
The Chaulukya dynasty (), also Solanki dynasty, was a dynasty that ruled parts of what are now Gujarat and Rajasthan in north-western India, between and . Their capital was located at Anahilavada (modern Patan). At times, their rule extended ...
,
Chandela
The Chandelas of Jejakabhukti was an Indian dynasty in Central India. The Chandelas ruled much of the Bundelkhand region (then called ''Jejakabhukti'') between the 9th and the 13th centuries. They belonged to the Chandel clan of the Rajputs.
...
, and other kingdoms.
When Muhammad Ghori died in 1206, Aibak fought with another former slave-general
Taj al-Din Yildiz
Taj al-Din Yildiz (also spelled Yaldiz, Yildoz, and Yalduz, fa, تاج الدین یلدوز) was a Turkic ghulam of the Ghurid dynasty, who, after the death of Sultan Muhammad of Ghor, became the ''de facto'' ruler of Ghazni, while, however ...
for control of Ghurid territories in north-western India. During this campaign, he advanced as far as
Ghazni
Ghazni ( prs, غزنی, ps, غزني), historically known as Ghaznain () or Ghazna (), also transliterated as Ghuznee, and anciently known as Alexandria in Opiana ( gr, Αλεξάνδρεια Ωπιανή), is a city in southeastern Afghanistan ...
, although he later retreated and set up his capital at
Lahore
Lahore ( ; pnb, ; ur, ) is the second most populous city in Pakistan after Karachi and 26th most populous city in the world, with a population of over 13 million. It is the capital of the province of Punjab where it is the largest city. ...
. He nominally acknowledged the suzerainty of Muhammad Ghori successor
Ghiyasuddin Mahmud, who officially recognized him as the ruler of India.
Aibak was succeeded by
Aram Shah, and then by his son-in-law
Iltutmish, who transformed the loosely-held Ghurid territories of India into the powerful Delhi Sultanate. Aibak is known for having commissioned the
Qutb Minar
The Qutb Minar, also spelled Qutub Minar and Qutab Minar, is a minaret and "victory tower" that forms part of the Qutb complex, which lies at the site of Delhi’s oldest fortified city, Lal Kot, founded by the Tomar Rajputs. It is a UNESCO Worl ...
in Delhi, and the
Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra
Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra (literally "shed of 2½ days") is a historical mosque in the city of Ajmer in Rajasthan, India. It is one of the oldest mosques in India, and the oldest surviving monument in Ajmer.
Commissioned by Qutb-ud-Din-Aibak in 1192 ...
in Ajmer.
Early life
Aibak was born in c. 1150. His name is variously transliterated as "Qutb al-Din Aybeg", "Qutbuddin Aibek", and "Kutb Al-Din Aybak". He came from
Turkestan
Turkestan, also spelled Turkistan ( fa, ترکستان, Torkestân, lit=Land of the Turks), is a historical region in Central Asia corresponding to the regions of Transoxiana and Xinjiang.
Overview
Known as Turan to the Persians, western Turke ...
, and belonged to a
Turkic tribe
The Turkic peoples are a collection of diverse ethnic groups of West, Central, East, and North Asia as well as parts of Europe, who speak Turkic languages.. "Turkic peoples, any of various peoples whose members speak languages belonging to the ...
called Aibak. The word "Aibak", also transliterated as "Aibak" or "Aybeg", derives from the
Turkic
Turkic may refer to:
* anything related to the country of Turkey
* Turkic languages, a language family of at least thirty-five documented languages
** Turkic alphabets (disambiguation)
** Turkish language, the most widely spoken Turkic language
* ...
words for "moon" (''ai'') and "lord" (''
bek''). As a child, he was separated from his family and taken to the slave market of
Nishapur
Nishapur or officially Romanized as Neyshabur ( fa, ;Or also "نیشاپور" which is closer to its original and historic meaning though it is less commonly used by modern native Persian speakers. In Persian poetry, the name of this city is wr ...
. There,
Qazi Fakhruddin Abdul Aziz Kufi, a descendant of the noted Muslim theologian
Abu Hanifa
Nuʿmān ibn Thābit ibn Zūṭā ibn Marzubān ( ar, نعمان بن ثابت بن زوطا بن مرزبان; –767), commonly known by his '' kunya'' Abū Ḥanīfa ( ar, أبو حنيفة), or reverently as Imam Abū Ḥanīfa by Sunni Mus ...
, purchased him. Aibak was treated affectionately in the Qazi's household and was educated with the Qazi's sons. He learned archery and horse-riding, besides
Quran
The Quran (, ; Standard Arabic: , Classical Arabic, Quranic Arabic: , , 'the recitation'), also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation in Islam, revelation from God in Islam, ...
recital.
The Qazi or one of his sons sold Aibak to a merchant, who in turn, sold the boy to the Ghurid Sultan
Muhammad Ghori in
Ghazni
Ghazni ( prs, غزنی, ps, غزني), historically known as Ghaznain () or Ghazna (), also transliterated as Ghuznee, and anciently known as Alexandria in Opiana ( gr, Αλεξάνδρεια Ωπιανή), is a city in southeastern Afghanistan ...
. After being admitted to the Sultan's slave-household, Aibak's intelligence and kind nature attracted the Sultan's attention. Once, when the Sultan bestowed gifts upon his slaves, Aibak distributed his share among the servants. Impressed by this act, the Sultan promoted him to a higher rank.
Aibak later rose to the important position of ''Amir-i Akhur'', the officer of the royal stables. During the Ghurid conflicts with the
Khwarazmian ruler
Sultan Shah, Aibak was responsible for the general maintenance of the horses, as well as their fodder and equipment. One day, while
foraging for horse fodder, he was captured by Sultan Shah's scouts and was detained in an iron cage. After the Ghurids defeated Sultan Shah, Muhammad Ghori ad-Din saw him in the cage and was deeply touched by his desperate condition. After he was released, the Sultan greatly favoured him. No information is available about Aibak's subsequent assignments until the
First Battle of Tarain
The First Battle of Tarain, also spelt as the First Battle of Taroari, was fought in 1191 between the invading Ghurid army led by Muhammad of Ghor and the Rajput confederacy led by Prithviraj Chauhan, near Tarain (modern Taraori in Haryana, In ...
fought in India, in 1191–1192.
Aibak's career in India can be divided into three phases:
# Officer in charge of some of Sultan Muhammad Ghori's territories in northern India (1192-1206)
# Informal sovereign who controlled Muhammad Ghori's former territories as a ''
Malik
Malik, Mallik, Melik, Malka, Malek, Maleek, Malick, Mallick, or Melekh ( phn, 𐤌𐤋𐤊; ar, ملك; he, מֶלֶךְ) is the Semitic term translating to "king", recorded in East Semitic and Arabic, and as mlk in Northwest Semitic duri ...
'' and ''
Sipah Salar
''Ispahsālār'' ( fa, اسپهسالار) or ''sipahsālār'' (; "army commander"), in Arabic rendered as ''isfahsalār'' () or ''iṣbahsalār'' (), was a title used in much of the Islamic world during the 10th–15th centuries, to denote the se ...
'' of Delhi and Lahore (1206-1208)
# Sovereign ruler of an officially independent kingdom in India (1208-1210)
As the Ghurid Sultan's subordinate
Campaign against the Chahamanas
Aibak was one of the generals of the Ghurid army that were defeated by the forces of the
Chahamana ruler
Prithviraja III at the
First Battle of Tarain
The First Battle of Tarain, also spelt as the First Battle of Taroari, was fought in 1191 between the invading Ghurid army led by Muhammad of Ghor and the Rajput confederacy led by Prithviraj Chauhan, near Tarain (modern Taraori in Haryana, In ...
in India. At the
Second Battle of Tarain
The Second Battle of Tarain was fought in 1192 between the Ghurid forces of Muhammad Ghuri and the Rajput Confederacy of Prithviraj Chauhan. It took place near Tarain (modern Taraori), which is , north of Delhi. The battle ended in a decisi ...
, where the Ghurids emerged victorious, he was in charge of the general disposition of the Ghurid army and kept close to Sultan Muhammad Ghori, who had placed himself at the centre of the army.
After his victory at Tarain, Muhammad Ghori assigned the former Chahamana territory to Aibak, who was placed at
Kuhram
Ghuram is a village in the Patiala district of Punjab, India.
History
An ancient site called Ram Garh is located in Ghuram. Some coins discovered here were attributed to the ancient Audumbara tribe by archaeologists G. B. Sharma and Manmohan K ...
(present-day Ghuram in
Punjab, India
Punjab (; ) is a States and union territories of India, state in northern India. Forming part of the larger Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent, the state is bordered by the States and union territories of India, Indian states of Himachal ...
). The exact nature of this assignment is not clear:
Minhaj describes it as an
iqta',
Fakhr-i Mudabbir
Fakhr al-Din Muhammad ibn Mansur Mubarak Shah al-Qurayshi, commonly known by his pen-name Fakhr-i Mudabbir (1157–1236) was a Persian author who was active at the court of the Ghaznavids, Ghurids, and Delhi Sultanate
The Delhi Sultanate wa ...
calls it a "command" (''
sipahsalari''), and
Hasan Nizami
Hasan Nizami was a Persian language poet and historian, who lived in the 12th and 13th centuries. He migrated from Nishapur to Delhi in India, where he wrote ''Tajul-Ma'asir'', the first official history of the Delhi Sultanate.
Early life
Lit ...
states that Aibak was made the governor (''ayalat'') of Kuhram and
Samana.
After the death of Prithviraja, Aibak appointed his son
Govindaraja IV
Govindaraja IV (r. c. 1192 CE ) was an Indian king belonging to the Chahamanas of Shakambhari, Chahamana dynasty, which ruled the Sapadalaksha country in present-day north-western India. The Ghurid invaders defeated and killed his father Prithvir ...
as a Ghurid vassal. Sometime later, Prithviraja's brother
Hariraja
Hariraja (r. c. 1193–1194 CE ) was a king from the Chahamana (Chauhan) dynasty who ruled parts of his ancestral kingdom (in present-day Rajasthan, India) for a brief period, before being defeated by the Ghurids. After the Ghurid invaders defe ...
invaded the
Ranthambore Fort, which Aibak had placed under his subordinate Qawamul Mulk. Aibak marched to Ranthambore, forcing Hariraja to retreat from Ranthambore as well as the former Chahamana capital
Ajmer
Ajmer is one of the major and oldest cities in the Indian state of Rajasthan and the centre of the eponymous Ajmer District. It is located at the centre of Rajasthan. It is also known as heart of Rajasthan. The city was established as "''Aj ...
.
Campaign against Jatwan
In September 1192, a rebel named Jatwan besieged the
Hansi Fort commanded by Nusrat-ud-din, in the former Chahamana territory. Aibak marched to Hansi, forcing Jatwan to retreat to
Bagar
Bagar may refer to: Esmeralda or a wicked black woman
* Arpunk, Armenia, also called Bagar
* Bagar, China, in the Tibet Autonomous Region
* Bagar region, the sandy tract of western Haryana, eastern Rajasthan and western Punjab in India
** Bagri l ...
, where the rebel was defeated and killed in a battle.
The above-mentioned information about Jatwan's rebellion comes from the contemporary writer
Hasan Nizami
Hasan Nizami was a Persian language poet and historian, who lived in the 12th and 13th centuries. He migrated from Nishapur to Delhi in India, where he wrote ''Tajul-Ma'asir'', the first official history of the Delhi Sultanate.
Early life
Lit ...
.
Firishta
Firishta or Ferešte ( fa, ), full name Muhammad Qasim Hindu Shah Astarabadi ( fa, مُحَمَّد قاسِم هِندو شاہ), was a Persian historian, who later settled in India and served the Deccan Sultans as their court historian. He was ...
(17th century), however, dates the rebellion to 1203, and states that Jatwan retreated to the frontiers of
Gujarat
Gujarat (, ) is a state along the western coast of India. Its coastline of about is the longest in the country, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula. Gujarat is the fifth-largest Indian state by area, covering some ; and the ninth ...
after his defeat. He was later killed as a subordinate of the
Chaulukya
The Chaulukya dynasty (), also Solanki dynasty, was a dynasty that ruled parts of what are now Gujarat and Rajasthan in north-western India, between and . Their capital was located at Anahilavada (modern Patan). At times, their rule extended ...
king
Bhima II
Bhima II (r. c. 1178–1240 CE), also known as ''Bhola Bhima'', was an Indian king who ruled parts of present-day Gujarat. He was a member of the Chaulukya (also called Chalukya or Solanki) dynasty. During his reign, the dynasty's power decli ...
when Aibak invaded Gujarat. According to historian
Dasharatha Sharma, Firishta may have confused the
Bagar tract (where Jatwan was killed) with another area called Bagar near the Gujarat border, around
Banswara and
Dungarpur
Dungarpur is a city in the southernmost part of Rajasthan, India. It is the administrative headquarters of Dungarpur District. It is the fastest developing town in the southern part of Rajasthan, alongside Aspur ''tehsil''.
History
Dungarpu ...
. Historian A.K. Majumdar adds that Firishta may have confused the Chaulukya ruler Bhima with Bhima-simha, who - according to the ''
Kharatara Gaccha
Kharatara Gaccha is one of Shvetambara Murtipujaka Gacchas. It is also called the Vidhisangha (the Assembly) or Vidhimarga (Path of Proper Conduct), as they regard their practices as scripturally correct.
History
Kharatara Gaccha was founde ...
Pattavali'' - was the governor of Hansi in 1171 CE. Thus, Jatwan may have been a general of Bhima-simha, and may have tried to recover the fort on behalf of his master.
Henry Miers Elliot
Sir Henry Miers Elliot (1 March 1808 – 20 December 1853) was an English civil servant and historian who worked with the East India Company in India for 26 years. He is most known for ''The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians'' based ...
thought Jatwan to be a leader of
Jats
The Jat people ((), ()) are a traditionally agricultural community in Northern India and Pakistan. Originally pastoralists in the lower Indus river-valley of Sindh, Jats migrated north into the Punjab region in late medieval times, and subse ...
, a claim repeated by later writers. Nizami does not state this, and Elliot's guess appears to be based on the similarity of the words "Jatwan" and "Jat", and the rebellion's locality, where Jats can be found. According to S.H. Hodivala, "Jatwan" is a mistranscription of the "Chahwan" in the manuscript, and the rebel was probably a Chahamana (Chawhan or Chauhan) subordinate of Prithivraja. According to Rima Hooja, it is probably a corrupt form of the name "Jaitra".
Initial conquests in Doab
![Adhai Din-ka-Jhonpra Screen wall (6133975257)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Adhai_Din-ka-Jhonpra_Screen_wall_%286133975257%29.jpg)
After defeating Jatwan, he returned to Kuhram and made preparations to invade the
Ganga-Yamuna Doab. In 1192, he took control of
Meerut and
Baran (modern Bulandshahr), from where he would later launch attacks against the
Gahadavala
The Gahadavala dynasty (IAST: Gāhaḍavālas), also Gahadavalas of Kanauj, was a Rajput dynasty that ruled parts of the present-day Indian states of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, during 11th and 12th centuries. Their capital was located at Varanas ...
kingdom. He also took control of
Delhi
Delhi, officially the National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi, is a city and a union territory of India containing New Delhi, the capital of India. Straddling the Yamuna river, primarily its western or right bank, Delhi shares borders w ...
in 1192, where he initially retained the local
Tomara ruler as a vassal. In 1193, he deposed the Tomara ruler for treason and took direct control of Delhi.
Sojourn in Ghazni
In 1193, Sultan Muhammad Ghori summoned Aibak to the Ghurid capital Ghazni. The near-contemporary chronicler
Minhaj does not elaborate why, but the 14th-century chronicler
Isami claims that some people had aroused the Sultan's suspicion against Aibak's loyalty. Historian
K. A. Nizami
Khaliq Ahmad Nizami (5 December 1925 – 4 December 1997) was an Indian historian and diplomat.
Early life and education
Nizami was born in Amroha, United Provinces of British India, United Provinces, British India. He completed his M.A. i ...
finds Isami's account unreliable and theorizes that the Sultan may have sought Aibak's help in planning further Ghurid expansion in India.
Return to India
Aibak stayed in Ghazni for about six months. After his return to India in 1194, he crossed the
Yamuna River
The Yamuna ( Hindustani: ), also spelt Jumna, is the second-largest tributary river of the Ganges by discharge and the longest tributary in India. Originating from the Yamunotri Glacier at a height of about on the southwestern slopes of Ban ...
, and captured
Koil (modern
Aligarh) from the
Dor Rajputs Dor Rajput (also known as Doda) are a Rajput clan of India.
In the late tenth century, the Dor Rajputs "seem to have extended their sway" over parts of Northern India, "ruling at first as feudatories of Tomara kings of Delhi", they "became more po ...
.
Meanwhile, taking advantage of Aibak's absence in India, Hariraja had regained control of a part of the former Chahamana territory. After his return to Delhi, Aibak sent an army against Hariraja, who committed suicide when faced with certain defeat. Aibak subsequently placed Ajmer under a Muslim governor and moved Govindaraja to
Ranthambore.
War against the Gahadavalas
In 1194, Mu'izz returned to India and crossed the
Jamuna with an army of 50,000 horses and at the
Battle of Chandawar
The Battle of Chandawar was fought in 1194 between Muhammad of Ghor and Jayachandra of the Gahadavala dynasty. It took place at Chandawar (modern Chandawal near Firozabad), on the Yamuna River close to Agra. The victory of this battle gave Muha ...
defeated the forces of the
Gahadavala
The Gahadavala dynasty (IAST: Gāhaḍavālas), also Gahadavalas of Kanauj, was a Rajput dynasty that ruled parts of the present-day Indian states of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, during 11th and 12th centuries. Their capital was located at Varanas ...
king
Jayachandra, who was killed in action. After the battle, Mu'izz continued his advance to the east, with Aibek in the vanguard. The city of
Benares (Kashi) was taken and razed, and "idols in a thousand temples" were destroyed.
It is generally thought that the Buddhist city of
Sarnath was also ravaged at that time.
Although the Ghurids did not gain complete control over the Gahadavala kingdom, the victory provided an opportunity for them to establish military stations at many places in the region.
Other campaigns
![QutbMinarNewDelhiFromSouth](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/QutbMinarNewDelhiFromSouth.jpg)
After the victory at Chandawar, Aibak turned his attention towards consolidating his position in Koil. Muhammad Ghori returned to Ghazni but came back to India in 1195-96 when he defeated Kumarapala, the Bhati ruler of
Bayana
Bayana is a historical town and the headquarters of Bayana tehsil in Bharatpur district of Rajasthan in India. Hindaun City is nearest city of Bayana - 33 km. It was the site of famous Important Battle of Bayana in 1527 between the Rajput ...
. He then marched towards
Gwalior
Gwalior() is a major city in the central Indian state of Madhya Pradesh; it lies in northern part of Madhya Pradesh and is one of the Counter-magnet cities. Located south of Delhi, the capital city of India, from Agra and from Bhopal, the s ...
, where the local Parihara ruler Sallakhanapala acknowledged his suzerainty.
Meanwhile, the Mher tribals, who lived near Ajmer, rebelled against the Ghurid rule. Supported by the
Chaulukya
The Chaulukya dynasty (), also Solanki dynasty, was a dynasty that ruled parts of what are now Gujarat and Rajasthan in north-western India, between and . Their capital was located at Anahilavada (modern Patan). At times, their rule extended ...
s, who ruled
Gujarat
Gujarat (, ) is a state along the western coast of India. Its coastline of about is the longest in the country, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula. Gujarat is the fifth-largest Indian state by area, covering some ; and the ninth ...
in the south, the Mhers posed a serious threat to Aibak's control of the region. Aibak marched against them but was forced to retreat to Ajmer. The Mhers were forced to retreat after reinforcements from the Ghurid capital of Ghazni arrived in Ajmer.
In 1197, Aibak defeated the
Chaulukya
The Chaulukya dynasty (), also Solanki dynasty, was a dynasty that ruled parts of what are now Gujarat and Rajasthan in north-western India, between and . Their capital was located at Anahilavada (modern Patan). At times, their rule extended ...
army at
Mount Abu
Mount Abu () is a hill station in the Aravalli Range in Sirohi district of the state of Rajasthan in western India.The mountain forms a rocky plateau 22 km long by 9 km wide. The highest peak on the mountain is Guru Shikhar at above s ...
, thus avenging Muhammad Ghori's defeat at the
Battle of Kasahrada nearly two decades earlier. Aibak's army then marched to the Chaulukya capital
Anhilwara: the defending king
Bhima II
Bhima II (r. c. 1178–1240 CE), also known as ''Bhola Bhima'', was an Indian king who ruled parts of present-day Gujarat. He was a member of the Chaulukya (also called Chalukya or Solanki) dynasty. During his reign, the dynasty's power decli ...
fled the city, which was plundered by the invaders. Minhaj characterizes Aibak's raid of Anhilwara as the "conquest of Gujarat", but it did not result in the annexation of Gujarat to the Ghurid Empire. The 16th-century historian
Firishta
Firishta or Ferešte ( fa, ), full name Muhammad Qasim Hindu Shah Astarabadi ( fa, مُحَمَّد قاسِم هِندو شاہ), was a Persian historian, who later settled in India and served the Deccan Sultans as their court historian. He was ...
states that Aibak appointed a Muslim officer to consolidate Ghurid power in the region, while
Ibn-i Asir states that Aibak placed the newly-captured territory under Hindu vassals. Whatever the case, Ghurid control of the region did not last long, and the Chaulukyas regained control of their capital soon after.
In 1197–98, Aibak conquered
Badaun
Budaun is commonly pronounced Badayun is a city and a seat of Budaun district, Uttar Pradesh, India. It is located near the Ganges river in the centre of Western Uttar Pradesh. Budaun was the capital of Delhi Sultanate for four years from 1210 ...
in present-day Uttar Pradesh, and also re-took control of the former Gahadavala capital
Varanasi
Varanasi (; ; also Banaras or Benares (; ), and Kashi.) is a city on the Ganges river in northern India that has a central place in the traditions of pilgrimage, death, and mourning in the Hindu world.
*
*
*
* The city has a syncretic t ...
, which had slipped out of Ghurid control. In 1198–99, he captured Chantarwal (unidentified, possibly the same as Chandawar) and
Kannauj. Later, he captured Siroh (possibly modern
Sirohi
Sirohi is a city, located in Sirohi district in southern Rajasthan state in western India. It is the administrative headquarters of Sirohi District and was formerly the capital of the princely state of Sirohi ruled by Deora Chauhan Rajput rul ...
in Rajasthan). According to the Persian chronicler Fakhr-i Mudabbir (c. 1157–1236), Aibak also conquered
Malwa
Malwa is a historical region of west-central India occupying a plateau of volcanic origin. Geologically, the Malwa Plateau generally refers to the volcanic upland north of the Vindhya Range. Politically and administratively, it is also syno ...
in present-day
Madhya Pradesh
Madhya Pradesh (, ; meaning 'central province') is a state in central India. Its capital is Bhopal, and the largest city is Indore, with Jabalpur, Ujjain, Gwalior, Sagar, and Rewa being the other major cities. Madhya Pradesh is the seco ...
, in 1199–1200. However, no other historian refers to such a conquest; therefore, it is likely that Aibak merely raided Malwa.
Meanwhile, Baha' al-Din Toghril (also transliterated as Bahauddin Tughril) - another prominent Ghurid slave-general - besieged the
Gwalior Fort
The Gwalior Fort commonly known as the ''Gwāliiyar Qila'', is a hill fort near Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India. The fort has existed at least since the 10th century, and the inscriptions and monuments found within what is now the fort campus ind ...
. After being reduced to a dire situation, the defenders approached Aibak and surrendered the fort to him in 1200. As a result, tension developed between Toghril and Aibak, although Toghril's death prevented a military conflict between the two men.
In 1202, Aibak besieged
Kalinjar, an important fort in the
Chandela
The Chandelas of Jejakabhukti was an Indian dynasty in Central India. The Chandelas ruled much of the Bundelkhand region (then called ''Jejakabhukti'') between the 9th and the 13th centuries. They belonged to the Chandel clan of the Rajputs.
...
kingdom of central India. The Chandela ruler
Paramardi initiated negotiations with Aibak but died before a treaty could be finalized. The Chandela chief minister Ajayadeva resumed hostilities but was forced to seek negotiations when the Ghurids cut off the water supply to the fort. As part of the truce, the Chandelas were forced to move to
Ajaigarh. Their former strongholds of Kalinjar,
Mahoba, and
Khajuraho
Khajuraho () is a city, near Chhatarpur in Chhatarpur district of the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. One of the most popular tourist destinations in India, Khajuraho has the country's largest group of medieval Hindu and Jain temples, famous f ...
came under Ghurid control, governed by Hasan Arnal.
Meanwhile, the Ghurid commander
Bakhtiyar Khalji subjugated the petty Gahadavala chiefs in eastern Uttar Pradesh and the Bihar region. After his Bihar campaign, which involved the destruction of Buddhist monasteries, Khalji arrived in Badaun to greet Aibak, who had just concluded his successful campaign at Kalinjar. On 23 March 1203, Khalji presented Aibak with war booty, including 20 captured elephants, jewels, and cash. Aibak honoured Khalji, who went on to conquer a part of the
Bengal
Bengal ( ; bn, বাংলা/বঙ্গ, translit=Bānglā/Bôngô, ) is a geopolitical, cultural and historical region in South Asia, specifically in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal, predom ...
region in the east. Bakhtiyar acted independently, and at the time of his death in 1206, was not a subordinate of Aibak.
In 1204, Muhammad Ghori suffered a defeat against the
Khwarazmians and their allies at the
Battle of Andkhud
The Battle of Andkhud, also spelt as Battle of Andkhui was fought in 1204 on the bank of river Oxus near Andkhoy in present-day Afghanistan. It was fought between the Ghurid forces of Muhammad of Ghor against the Qara Khitai forces (as aid of ...
, followed by several challenges to his authority. Aibak helped him suppress a rebellion by the
Khokhar
Khokhar are a Punjabi community native to Pothohar Plateau of Pakistan, and the adjoining areas of India. Khokhars now predominantly follow Islam, though a minority continue to follow Hinduism. Many Khokhars converted to Islam from Hinduism a ...
chiefs of the
Lahore
Lahore ( ; pnb, ; ur, ) is the second most populous city in Pakistan after Karachi and 26th most populous city in the world, with a population of over 13 million. It is the capital of the province of Punjab where it is the largest city. ...
region, and then returned to Delhi. On 15 March 1206, Muhammad Ghori was assassinated: different sources variously attribute the act to Khokhars or
Ismaili
Isma'ilism ( ar, الإسماعيلية, al-ʾIsmāʿīlīyah) is a branch or sub-sect of Shia Islam. The Isma'ili () get their name from their acceptance of Imam Isma'il ibn Jafar as the appointed spiritual successor (imām) to Ja'far al-Sa ...
s.
After Muhammad Ghori's death
According to
Minhaj's ''
Tabaqat-i Nasiri'', Aibak had conquered territory up to the frontiers of
Ujjain
Ujjain (, Hindustani language, Hindustani pronunciation: Help:IPA/Hindi and Urdu, d͡ːʒɛːn is a city in Ujjain district of the States and territories of India, Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. It is the fifth-largest city in Madhya Prad ...
in the south. Minhaj states that at the time of Sultan Muhammad Ghori's death in 1206, the Ghurids controlled the following areas in India:
However, Ghurid control was not equally effective in all these areas. In some of these places, such as Gwalior and Kalinjar, Ghurid control had weakened or even ceased to exist.
Eastern India
During Sultan Muhammad Ghori's reign, parts of the Bihar and Bengal area in eastern India had been conquered by the Khalji clan, led by the Ghurid general
Bakhtiyar Khalji. Bakhtiyar was killed by his subordinate
Ali Mardan Khalji at
Devkot
Bangarh is an ancient city situated in Gangarampur, West Bengal, India. Bangarh was the ancient city which was the administrative centre of Kotivarsha Vishaya (territorial division), itself part of the wider administrative unit of Pundravardha ...
in 1206, around the same time Sultan Muhammad Ghori was assassinated. Subsequently,
Muhammad Shiran Khalji, another subordinate of Bakhtiyar, detained Ali Mardan and became the leader of the Khaljis in eastern India. Ali Mardan escaped to Delhi, where he persuaded Aibak to intervene in Khalji affairs. The Khaljis were not slaves of Muhammad Ghori, so Aibak had no legal authority in the matter. Nevertheless, he instructed his subordinate Qaimaz Rumi - the governor of Awadh - to march to Lakhnauti in Bengal, and assign suitable
iqta's to the Khalji
amirs.
Qaimaz Rumi assigned the iqta' of Devkot to
Husamuddin Iwaz Khalji, another subordinate of Bakhtiyar. Muhammad Shiran and other Khalji amirs disagreed with this decision and marched to Devkot. However, Rumi defeated them decisively, and Shiran was later killed in a conflict. Later, Aibak assigned Lakhnauti to Ali Mardan (see below).
Recognition as the ruler of northern India
''Tajul-Ma'asir'', a contemporary chronicle by
Hasan Nizami
Hasan Nizami was a Persian language poet and historian, who lived in the 12th and 13th centuries. He migrated from Nishapur to Delhi in India, where he wrote ''Tajul-Ma'asir'', the first official history of the Delhi Sultanate.
Early life
Lit ...
, suggests that Muhammad Ghori appointed Aibak as his representative in India after his victory at Tarain. Hasan Nizami also states that the ''iyalat'' (governorship) of Kuhram and
Samana was entrusted to Aibak.
Fakhr-i Mudabbir, another contemporary chronicler, states that Muhammad Ghori formally appointed Aibak as the viceroy of his Indian territories only in 1206 when he was returning to Ghazni after suppressing the Khokhar rebellion. According to this chronicler, Aibak was promoted to the rank of ''malik'' and appointed heir apparent (''
wali al-ahd'') of the Sultan's Indian territories.
Historian
K. A. Nizami
Khaliq Ahmad Nizami (5 December 1925 – 4 December 1997) was an Indian historian and diplomat.
Early life and education
Nizami was born in Amroha, United Provinces of British India, United Provinces, British India. He completed his M.A. i ...
theorizes that Sultan Muhammad Ghori never appointed Aibak as his successor in India: the slave-general acquired this position ''after'' the Sultan's death through the use of diplomacy and military power. The Sultan's unexpected death left three of his main slave-generals - Aibak,
Taj al-Din Yildiz
Taj al-Din Yildiz (also spelled Yaldiz, Yildoz, and Yalduz, fa, تاج الدین یلدوز) was a Turkic ghulam of the Ghurid dynasty, who, after the death of Sultan Muhammad of Ghor, became the ''de facto'' ruler of Ghazni, while, however ...
, and
Nasir ad-Din Qabacha - in positions of power. During his last years, the Sultan was disappointed in his family and his chiefs and trusted only his slaves, whom he thought of as his sons and successors.
At the time of the Sultan's death, Aibak had his headquarters at Delhi. The citizens of Lahore requested him to assume sovereign power after the Sultan's death, and he moved his government to Lahore. He informally ascended the throne on 25 June 1206, but his formal recognition as a sovereign ruler happened much later, in 1208–1209.
Meanwhile, in and around Ghazni, the Sultan's slaves fought with his nobles for control of the Ghurid Empire and helped his nephew
Ghiyasuddin Mahmud ascend the throne. When Mahmud had consolidated his rule, Aibak and other slaves sent messengers to his court, seeking deeds of manumission and investiture for ruling over the various Ghurid territories. According to Minhaj, Aibak (unlike Yildiz) maintained the
khutba
''Khutbah'' ( ar, خطبة ''khuṭbah'', tr, hutbe) serves as the primary formal occasion for public preaching in the Islamic tradition.
Such sermons occur regularly, as prescribed by the teachings of all legal schools. The Islamic traditi ...
and stuck's coins in Mahmud's name.
Yildiz, who was Aibak's father-in-law, sought to control the Ghurid territories in India. After Sultan Mahmud confirmed him as the ruler of Ghazni and manumitted him, Yildiz marched to
Punjab
Punjab (; Punjabi: پنجاب ; ਪੰਜਾਬ ; ; also romanised as ''Panjāb'' or ''Panj-Āb'') is a geopolitical, cultural, and historical region in South Asia, specifically in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, comprising ...
, intending to take control of the region. Aibak marched against him, forced him to retreat to
Kohistan
Kohistan ( fa, کوہستان, ), also transliterated Kuhistan, Kuhiston, Quhistan, may refer to:
In Afghanistan
*Kohistan District, Kapisa, Kapisa Province
** Kohistan Hesa Awal District, a district in Kapisa Province, created within the form ...
, and took control of Ghazni. Aibak then sent his representative Nizamuddin Muhammad to Mahmud's headquarters at
Firuz Kuh
Firuzkuh ( fa, فيروزكوه, also Romanized as Fīrūzkūh and Fīrūz Kūh; Tabarian: Pirezcow; also known as Qaşabeh-ye Fīrūz Kūh) is a city and capital of Firuzkuh County, Tehran Province, Iran. At the 2016 census, its population wa ...
, seeking to expedite his request for the investiture.
In 1208–1209, Mahmud conferred a ''chatr'' (ceremonial parasol) on Aibak, and issued a deed of investiture recognizing him as the ruler of
Hindustan
''Hindūstān'' ( , from '' Hindū'' and ''-stān''), also sometimes spelt as Hindōstān ( ''Indo-land''), along with its shortened form ''Hind'' (), is the Persian-language name for the Indian subcontinent that later became commonly used by ...
. He may have also issued a deed of manumission for Aibak at this time. According to Minhaj's ''Tabaqat-i Nasiri'', Mahmud styled Aibak as a "Sultan"; chronicler Hasan Nizami also calls him a "Sultan". Nizami states that the ''khutba'' was read and coins were struck in Aibak's name, but no other source corroborates this claim. No coins issued by him have been found, and no extant coins describe him as a "Sultan".
According to Minhaj, Aibak became complacent and devoted his time to pleasures and amusements in Ghazni. The people of Ghazni invited Yildiz to evict him from the city, and when Yildiz arrived in the vicinity of Ghazni, Aibak panicked and escaped to India via a narrow mountain pass called Sang-i Surkh. Subsequently, Aibak moved his capital to
Lahore
Lahore ( ; pnb, ; ur, ) is the second most populous city in Pakistan after Karachi and 26th most populous city in the world, with a population of over 13 million. It is the capital of the province of Punjab where it is the largest city. ...
to safeguard his territories against Yildiz.
Ali Mardan Khalji, who had accompanied Aibak to Ghazni, was captured and imprisoned by Yildiz. He somehow secured his release and returned to India. Aibak dispatched him to Lakhnauti in Bengal, where
Husamuddin Iwaz agreed to be his subordinate. Ali Mardan thus became the governor of Aibak's territories in eastern India and brought the whole region under his control.
Death and legacy
![Death of the slave king, Kutbuddin Aibak of Delhi, A](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Death_of_the_slave_king%2C_Kutbuddin_Aibak_of_Delhi%2C_A.D._1210.jpg)
After being recognized as the ruler of India, Aibak focused on consolidating his rule in the territories already under his control, rather than conquering new territories. In 1210, he fell down from a horse while playing
chovgan
Chovgan, Chowgan or Chogan (Persian: چوگان ''čōwgan''), is a sporting team game with horses that originated in ancient Iran (Persia). It was considered an aristocratic game and held in a separate field, on specially trained horses. The g ...
(a form of
polo
Polo is a ball game played on horseback, a traditional field sport and one of the world's oldest known team sports. The game is played by two opposing teams with the objective of scoring using a long-handled wooden mallet to hit a small hard ...
on horseback) in
Lahore
Lahore ( ; pnb, ; ur, ) is the second most populous city in Pakistan after Karachi and 26th most populous city in the world, with a population of over 13 million. It is the capital of the province of Punjab where it is the largest city. ...
, and died instantly when the pommel of the
saddle
The saddle is a supportive structure for a rider of an animal, fastened to an animal's back by a girth. The most common type is equestrian. However, specialized saddles have been created for oxen, camels and other animals. It is not kno ...
pierced his ribs.
All contemporary chroniclers praise Aibak as a loyal, generous, courageous, and just man. According to Minhaj, his generosity earned him the epithet ''lakh-bakhsh'', literally "giver of
lakh
A lakh (; abbreviated L; sometimes written lac) is a unit in the Indian numbering system equal to one hundred thousand (100,000; scientific notation: 105). In the Indian 2,2,3 convention of digit grouping, it is written as 1,00,000. For ex ...
s
f copper coins or ''jitals''
F, or f, is the sixth letter in the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. Its name in English is ''ef'' (pronounced ), and the plural is ''efs''.
Hist ...
. Fakhr-i Mudabbir states that Aibak's soldiers - who included "Turks, Ghurids, Khurasanis, Khaljis, and Hindustanis" - did not dare to forcibly take even a blade of grass or a morsel of food from the peasants. The 16th century
Mughal
Mughal or Moghul may refer to:
Related to the Mughal Empire
* Mughal Empire of South Asia between the 16th and 19th centuries
* Mughal dynasty
* Mughal emperors
* Mughal people, a social group of Central and South Asia
* Mughal architecture
* Mug ...
chronicler
Abu'l-Fazl criticizes Aibak's master Muhammad Ghori for "shedding innocent blood", but praises Aibak stating that "he achieved things, good and great". As late as the 17th century, the term "Aibak of the time" was used to describe generous people, as attested by the chronicler
Firishta
Firishta or Ferešte ( fa, ), full name Muhammad Qasim Hindu Shah Astarabadi ( fa, مُحَمَّد قاسِم هِندو شاہ), was a Persian historian, who later settled in India and served the Deccan Sultans as their court historian. He was ...
.
Aibak's conquests involved the large-scale capture of people as slaves. According to Hasan Nizami, his Gujarat campaign resulted in the enslavement of 20,000 people; and his Kalinjar campaign resulted in the enslavement of 50,000 people. According to
Irfan Habib
Irfan Habib (born August 10, 1931) is an Indian historian of ancient and medieval India, following the methodology of Marxist historiography in his contributions to economic history. He identifies as a Marxist and is well known for his strong ...
, Nizami's work is full of rhetoric and hyperbole, so these numbers seem to be exaggerated, however, the number of slaves collected must indeed have been vast and grew over time.
![Qutbuddin_Aibak_Tomb_ahore_02](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/Qutbuddin_Aibak_Tomb_ahore_02.jpg)
Aibak, who died unexpectedly, had not appointed an heir apparent. After his death, the Turkic officers (''maliks'' and ''amirs'') stationed at
Lahore
Lahore ( ; pnb, ; ur, ) is the second most populous city in Pakistan after Karachi and 26th most populous city in the world, with a population of over 13 million. It is the capital of the province of Punjab where it is the largest city. ...
appointed
Aram Shah as his successor. No details about Aram Shah's life are available before his ascension to the throne. According to one theory, he was a son of Aibak, but this is unlikely (see
personal life section.)
Aram Shah ruled for no more than eight months, during which various provincial governors started asserting independence. Some Turkic officers then invited Aibak's former slave
Iltutmish, a distinguished general, to take over the kingdom. Aibak had purchased Iltutmish sometime after the conquest of Anhilwara in 1197. According to Minhaj, Aibak looked upon Iltutmish as the next ruler: he used to call Iltutmish his son and had granted him the
iqta' of
Badaun
Budaun is commonly pronounced Badayun is a city and a seat of Budaun district, Uttar Pradesh, India. It is located near the Ganges river in the centre of Western Uttar Pradesh. Budaun was the capital of Delhi Sultanate for four years from 1210 ...
. Consequently, the nobles appointed Iltutmish as Aram Shah's successor and married Aibak's daughter to him. Aram Shah challenged Iltutmish's claim to the throne but was decisively defeated and killed after a military conflict. Iltutmish subjugated the rebel governors and transformed the loosely-held Ghurid territories of India into the powerful
Delhi Sultanate
The Delhi Sultanate was an Islamic empire based in Delhi that stretched over large parts of the Indian subcontinent for 320 years (1206–1526). .
Iltutmish was succeeded by his family members, and then by his slave
Ghiyas ud din Balban
Ghiyas ud din Balban (1216–1287, reigned: 1266–1287) ( ur, ); (Hindi: ग़ियास उद-दीन बलबन); (IAST: ''Ghiyās ud-Dīn Balban'') was the ninth sultan of the Mamluk dynasty of Delhi.
Ghiyas ud Din was the ''regen ...
. This line of kings is called
Mamluk
Mamluk ( ar, مملوك, mamlūk (singular), , ''mamālīk'' (plural), translated as "one who is owned", meaning " slave", also transliterated as ''Mameluke'', ''mamluq'', ''mamluke'', ''mameluk'', ''mameluke'', ''mamaluke'', or ''marmeluke'') ...
or Slave dynasty; however, this term is a misnomer. Only Aibak, Iltutmish, and Balban were slaves, and seem to have been
manumitted
Manumission, or enfranchisement, is the act of freeing enslaved people by their enslavers. Different approaches to manumission were developed, each specific to the time and place of a particular society. Historian Verene Shepherd states that t ...
before their ascension to the throne. The other rulers in this line were not slaves at any point in their life.
Today his tomb is located in
Anarkali, Lahore. The tomb was built, in its present form, during the 1970s by the Department of Archaeology and Museums (Pakistan) which tried to emulate the Sultanate-era architecture. Before the modern construction, the Sultan's grave existed in a simple form and was enclosed by residential houses. Historians dispute whether a proper tomb ever existed over it (some historians claim that a marble dome did stand over it but was destroyed by the Sikhs).
Personal life
Some manuscripts of Minhaj's ''
Tabaqat-i Nasiri'' append the words ''bin Aibak'' ("son of Aibak") to the name of Aibak's successor of
Aram Shah. However, this may have been an erroneous addition made by a careless scribe, as Alauddin Ata Malik-i-Juwayni's ''Tarikh-i-Jahan-Gusha'' chronicle explicitly mentions that Aibak had no son.
Minhaj refers to the three daughters of Aibak. The first one was married to
Nasir ad-Din Qabacha, the Ghurid governor of
Multan
Multan (; ) is a city in Punjab, Pakistan, on the bank of the Chenab River. Multan is Pakistan's seventh largest city as per the 2017 census, and the major cultural, religious and economic centre of southern Punjab.
Multan is one of the List ...
. After her death, the second daughter was married to Qabacha as well. The third one was married to Aibak's slave
Iltutmish, who succeeded Aram Shah on the throne of Delhi.
Religion
Chronicler
Hasan Nizami
Hasan Nizami was a Persian language poet and historian, who lived in the 12th and 13th centuries. He migrated from Nishapur to Delhi in India, where he wrote ''Tajul-Ma'asir'', the first official history of the Delhi Sultanate.
Early life
Lit ...
, who migrated from
Nishapur
Nishapur or officially Romanized as Neyshabur ( fa, ;Or also "نیشاپور" which is closer to its original and historic meaning though it is less commonly used by modern native Persian speakers. In Persian poetry, the name of this city is wr ...
to Delhi during Aibak's reign, characterizes Aibak as a devout Muslim who "uprooted idolatry" and "destroyed temples" at Kuhram. He also mentions that the Hindu temples at Meerut and Kalinjar were converted into mosques during Aibak's reign; these included "a thousand temples" in
Delhi
Delhi, officially the National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi, is a city and a union territory of India containing New Delhi, the capital of India. Straddling the Yamuna river, primarily its western or right bank, Delhi shares borders w ...
alone.
He further claims that Aibak freed the whole Kol (
Aligarh) region from idols and
idolatry
Idolatry is the worship of a cult image or "idol" as though it were God. In Abrahamic religions (namely Judaism, Samaritanism, Christianity, the Baháʼí Faith, and Islam) idolatry connotes the worship of something or someone other than the A ...
.
Nizami's claim that the remains of the demolished Hindu temples were used to build mosques is corroborated by architectural remains, such as those at the
Qutb Minar complex in Delhi and the
Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra
Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra (literally "shed of 2½ days") is a historical mosque in the city of Ajmer in Rajasthan, India. It is one of the oldest mosques in India, and the oldest surviving monument in Ajmer.
Commissioned by Qutb-ud-Din-Aibak in 1192 ...
in Ajmer. However, his other claims such as Aibak freeing Kol from idols are doubtful.
At some point, Aibak's army started recruiting Hindu soldiers. His army at the siege of Meerut (1192) is known to have included Hindu soldiers. Similarly, the "forces of Hindustan" (''Hasham-i Hindustan'') that accompanied him to Ghazni in 1206, included Hindu chiefs ("
ranas
Rana dynasty ( ne, राणा वंश, IAST=Rāṇā vaṃśa , ) is a Chhetri dynasty that imposed totalitarianism in the Kingdom of Nepal from 1846 until 1951, reducing the Shah monarch to a figurehead and making Prime Minister and other ...
" and "
thakurs").
Cultural contributions
The construction of the
Qutb Minar
The Qutb Minar, also spelled Qutub Minar and Qutab Minar, is a minaret and "victory tower" that forms part of the Qutb complex, which lies at the site of Delhi’s oldest fortified city, Lal Kot, founded by the Tomar Rajputs. It is a UNESCO Worl ...
in Delhi started during Aibak's reign. Aibak was also a patron of literature. Fakhri Mudabbir, who wrote ''Adab al-Harb'' - etiquettes of war - dedicated his book of genealogies to Aibak. The composition of Hasan Nizami's ''Tajul-Ma'asir'', which was completed during the reign of Iltutmish, probably began during Aibak's reign.
References
Bibliography
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{{Authority control
Sultans of the Mamluk dynasty (Delhi)
12th-century births
1210 deaths
Indian Sunni Muslims
12th-century Turkic people
13th-century Turkic people
Turkic rulers
12th-century Indian monarchs
13th-century Indian monarchs
Deaths by horse-riding accident
People of Cuman descent
Indian slaves
Medieval slaves
Slave soldiers
Founding monarchs