A quotient group or factor group is a
mathematical
group
A group is a number of persons or things that are located, gathered, or classed together.
Groups of people
* Cultural group, a group whose members share the same cultural identity
* Ethnic group, a group whose members share the same ethnic ide ...
obtained by aggregating similar elements of a larger group using an
equivalence relation
In mathematics, an equivalence relation is a binary relation that is reflexive, symmetric and transitive. The equipollence relation between line segments in geometry is a common example of an equivalence relation.
Each equivalence relation ...
that preserves some of the group structure (the rest of the structure is "factored" out). For example, the
cyclic group
In group theory, a branch of abstract algebra in pure mathematics, a cyclic group or monogenous group is a group, denoted C''n'', that is generated by a single element. That is, it is a set of invertible elements with a single associative bina ...
of
addition modulo ''n'' can be obtained from the group of
integer
An integer is the number zero (), a positive natural number (, , , etc.) or a negative integer with a minus sign (−1, −2, −3, etc.). The negative numbers are the additive inverses of the corresponding positive numbers. In the language ...
s under addition by identifying elements that differ by a multiple of
and defining a group structure that operates on each such class (known as a
congruence class
In mathematics, modular arithmetic is a system of arithmetic for integers, where numbers "wrap around" when reaching a certain value, called the modulus. The modern approach to modular arithmetic was developed by Carl Friedrich Gauss in his book ...
) as a single entity. It is part of the mathematical field known as
group theory
In abstract algebra, group theory studies the algebraic structures known as group (mathematics), groups.
The concept of a group is central to abstract algebra: other well-known algebraic structures, such as ring (mathematics), rings, field ...
.
For a
congruence relation
In abstract algebra, a congruence relation (or simply congruence) is an equivalence relation on an algebraic structure (such as a group, ring, or vector space) that is compatible with the structure in the sense that algebraic operations done wi ...
on a group, the
equivalence class
In mathematics, when the elements of some set S have a notion of equivalence (formalized as an equivalence relation), then one may naturally split the set S into equivalence classes. These equivalence classes are constructed so that elements a ...
of the
identity element
In mathematics, an identity element, or neutral element, of a binary operation operating on a set is an element of the set that leaves unchanged every element of the set when the operation is applied. This concept is used in algebraic structures su ...
is always a
normal subgroup of the original group, and the other equivalence classes are precisely the
coset
In mathematics, specifically group theory, a subgroup of a group may be used to decompose the underlying set of into disjoint, equal-size subsets called cosets. There are ''left cosets'' and ''right cosets''. Cosets (both left and right) ...
s of that normal subgroup. The resulting quotient is written
, where
is the original group and
is the normal subgroup. (This is pronounced
, where
is short for
modulo.)
Much of the importance of quotient groups is derived from their relation to
homomorphisms. The
first isomorphism theorem
In mathematics, specifically abstract algebra, the isomorphism theorems (also known as Noether's isomorphism theorems) are theorems that describe the relationship between quotients, homomorphisms, and subobjects. Versions of the theorems exist fo ...
states that the
image
An image is a visual representation of something. It can be two-dimensional, three-dimensional, or somehow otherwise feed into the visual system to convey information. An image can be an artifact, such as a photograph or other two-dimensiona ...
of any group ''G'' under a homomorphism is always
isomorphic
In mathematics, an isomorphism is a structure-preserving mapping between two structures of the same type that can be reversed by an inverse mapping. Two mathematical structures are isomorphic if an isomorphism exists between them. The word is ...
to a quotient of
. Specifically, the image of
under a homomorphism
is isomorphic to
where
denotes the
kernel
Kernel may refer to:
Computing
* Kernel (operating system), the central component of most operating systems
* Kernel (image processing), a matrix used for image convolution
* Compute kernel, in GPGPU programming
* Kernel method, in machine learn ...
of
.
The
dual notion of a quotient group is a
subgroup
In group theory, a branch of mathematics, given a group ''G'' under a binary operation ∗, a subset ''H'' of ''G'' is called a subgroup of ''G'' if ''H'' also forms a group under the operation ∗. More precisely, ''H'' is a subgroup ...
, these being the two primary ways of forming a smaller group from a larger one. Any normal subgroup has a corresponding quotient group, formed from the larger group by eliminating the distinction between elements of the subgroup. In
category theory, quotient groups are examples of
quotient objects, which are
dual to
subobjects.
Definition and illustration
Given a
group
A group is a number of persons or things that are located, gathered, or classed together.
Groups of people
* Cultural group, a group whose members share the same cultural identity
* Ethnic group, a group whose members share the same ethnic ide ...
and a subgroup
, and an element
, one can consider the corresponding left
coset
In mathematics, specifically group theory, a subgroup of a group may be used to decompose the underlying set of into disjoint, equal-size subsets called cosets. There are ''left cosets'' and ''right cosets''. Cosets (both left and right) ...
:
. Cosets are a natural class of subsets of a group; for example consider the
abelian group
In mathematics, an abelian group, also called a commutative group, is a group in which the result of applying the group operation to two group elements does not depend on the order in which they are written. That is, the group operation is comm ...
''G'' of
integer
An integer is the number zero (), a positive natural number (, , , etc.) or a negative integer with a minus sign (−1, −2, −3, etc.). The negative numbers are the additive inverses of the corresponding positive numbers. In the language ...
s, with
operation
Operation or Operations may refer to:
Arts, entertainment and media
* ''Operation'' (game), a battery-operated board game that challenges dexterity
* Operation (music), a term used in musical set theory
* ''Operations'' (magazine), Multi-Ma ...
defined by the usual addition, and the subgroup
of even integers. Then there are exactly two cosets:
, which are the even integers, and
, which are the odd integers (here we are using additive notation for the binary operation instead of multiplicative notation).
For a general subgroup ''
'', it is desirable to define a compatible group operation on the set of all possible cosets,
. This is possible exactly when ''
'' is a normal subgroup, see below. A subgroup
of a group ''
'' is normal
if and only if
In logic and related fields such as mathematics and philosophy, "if and only if" (shortened as "iff") is a biconditional logical connective between statements, where either both statements are true or both are false.
The connective is bicondi ...
the coset equality
holds for all
. A normal subgroup of ''
'' is denoted
.
Definition
Let ''
'' be a normal subgroup of a group ''
'' . Define the set
to be the set of all left cosets of ''
'' in ''
'' . That is,
. Since the identity element
,
. Define a binary operation on the set of cosets,
, as follows. For each
and
in
, the product of
and
,
, is
. This works only because
does not depend on the choice of the representatives,
and
, of each left coset,
and
. To prove this, suppose
and
for some
. Then
:
.
This depends on the fact that ''N'' is a normal subgroup. It still remains to be shown that this condition is not only sufficient but necessary to define the operation on ''G''/''N''.
To show that it is necessary, consider that for a subgroup ''
'' of ''
'', we have been given that the operation is well defined. That is, for all
and
'','' for
.
Let
and
. Since
'','' we have
.
Now,
and
.
Hence ''
'' is a normal subgroup of ''
'' .
It can also be checked that this operation on
is always associative,
has identity element ''
'', and the inverse of element
can always be represented by
. Therefore, the set
together with the operation defined by
forms a group, the quotient group of ''
'' by ''
''.
Due to the normality of ''
'', the left cosets and right cosets of ''
'' in ''
'' are the same, and so,
could have been defined to be the set of right cosets of ''
'' in ''
'' .
Example: Addition modulo 6
For example, consider the group with addition modulo 6:
. Consider the subgroup ''
'', which is normal because ''
'' is
abelian. Then the set of (left) cosets is of size three:
:
.
The binary operation defined above makes this set into a group, known as the quotient group, which in this case is isomorphic to the
cyclic group
In group theory, a branch of abstract algebra in pure mathematics, a cyclic group or monogenous group is a group, denoted C''n'', that is generated by a single element. That is, it is a set of invertible elements with a single associative bina ...
of order 3.
Motivation for the name "quotient"
The reason
is called a quotient group comes from
division
Division or divider may refer to:
Mathematics
*Division (mathematics), the inverse of multiplication
*Division algorithm, a method for computing the result of mathematical division
Military
*Division (military), a formation typically consisting ...
of
integer
An integer is the number zero (), a positive natural number (, , , etc.) or a negative integer with a minus sign (−1, −2, −3, etc.). The negative numbers are the additive inverses of the corresponding positive numbers. In the language ...
s. When dividing 12 by 3 one obtains the answer 4 because one can regroup 12 objects into 4 subcollections of 3 objects. The quotient group is the same idea, although we end up with a group for a final answer instead of a number because groups have more structure than an arbitrary collection of objects.
To elaborate, when looking at
with ''
'' a normal subgroup of ''
'', the group structure is used to form a natural "regrouping". These are the cosets of ''
'' in ''
''. Because we started with a group and normal subgroup, the final quotient contains more information than just the number of cosets (which is what regular division yields), but instead has a group structure itself.
Examples
Even and odd integers
Consider the group of
integer
An integer is the number zero (), a positive natural number (, , , etc.) or a negative integer with a minus sign (−1, −2, −3, etc.). The negative numbers are the additive inverses of the corresponding positive numbers. In the language ...
s
(under addition) and the subgroup
consisting of all even integers. This is a normal subgroup, because
is
abelian. There are only two cosets: the set of even integers and the set of odd integers, and therefore the quotient group
is the cyclic group with two elements. This quotient group is isomorphic with the set
with addition modulo 2; informally, it is sometimes said that
''equals'' the set
with addition modulo 2.
Example further explained...
: Let
be the remainders of
when dividing by
. Then,
when
is even and
when
is odd.
: By definition of
, the kernel of
,
, is the set of all even integers.
: Let
. Then,
is a subgroup, because the identity in
, which is
, is in
, the sum of two even integers is even and hence if
and
are in
,
is in
(closure) and if
is even,
is also even and so
contains its inverses.
: Define
as
for
and is the quotient group of left cosets;
.
: Note that we have defined
,
is
if
is odd and
if
is even.
: Thus,
is an isomorphism from to
.
Remainders of integer division
A slight generalization of the last example. Once again consider the group of integers
under addition. Let ''n'' be any positive integer. We will consider the subgroup
of
consisting of all multiples of ''
''. Once again
is normal in
because
is abelian. The cosets are the collection
. An integer ''
'' belongs to the coset
, where ''
'' is the remainder when dividing ''
'' by ''
''. The quotient
can be thought of as the group of "remainders" modulo
. This is a
cyclic group
In group theory, a branch of abstract algebra in pure mathematics, a cyclic group or monogenous group is a group, denoted C''n'', that is generated by a single element. That is, it is a set of invertible elements with a single associative bina ...
of order ''
''.
Complex integer roots of 1
![Normal subgroup illustration](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/Normal_subgroup_illustration.svg)
The twelfth
roots of unity
In mathematics, a root of unity, occasionally called a de Moivre number, is any complex number that yields 1 when raised to some positive integer power . Roots of unity are used in many branches of mathematics, and are especially important in ...
, which are points on the
complex
Complex commonly refers to:
* Complexity, the behaviour of a system whose components interact in multiple ways so possible interactions are difficult to describe
** Complex system, a system composed of many components which may interact with each ...
unit circle
In mathematics, a unit circle is a circle of unit radius—that is, a radius of 1. Frequently, especially in trigonometry, the unit circle is the circle of radius 1 centered at the origin (0, 0) in the Cartesian coordinate system in the Eucl ...
, form a multiplicative abelian group ''
'', shown on the picture on the right as colored balls with the number at each point giving its complex argument. Consider its subgroup ''
'' made of the fourth roots of unity, shown as red balls. This normal subgroup splits the group into three cosets, shown in red, green and blue. One can check that the cosets form a group of three elements (the product of a red element with a blue element is blue, the inverse of a blue element is green, etc.). Thus, the quotient group ''
'' is the group of three colors, which turns out to be the cyclic group with three elements.
The real numbers modulo the integers
Consider the group of
real number
In mathematics, a real number is a number that can be used to measure a ''continuous'' one-dimensional quantity such as a distance, duration or temperature. Here, ''continuous'' means that values can have arbitrarily small variations. Every real ...
s
under addition, and the subgroup
of integers. Each coset of
in
is a set of the form
, where ''
'' is a real number. Since
and
are identical sets when the non-
integer part
In mathematics and computer science, the floor function is the function that takes as input a real number , and gives as output the greatest integer less than or equal to , denoted or . Similarly, the ceiling function maps to the least int ...
s of ''
'' and ''
'' are equal, one may impose the restriction
without change of meaning. Adding such cosets is done by adding the corresponding real numbers, and subtracting 1 if the result is greater than or equal to 1. The quotient group
is isomorphic to the
circle group, the group of
complex number
In mathematics, a complex number is an element of a number system that extends the real numbers with a specific element denoted , called the imaginary unit and satisfying the equation i^= -1; every complex number can be expressed in the form ...
s of
absolute value
In mathematics, the absolute value or modulus of a real number x, is the non-negative value without regard to its sign. Namely, , x, =x if is a positive number, and , x, =-x if x is negative (in which case negating x makes -x positive), an ...
1 under multiplication, or correspondingly, the group of
rotation
Rotation, or spin, is the circular movement of an object around a '' central axis''. A two-dimensional rotating object has only one possible central axis and can rotate in either a clockwise or counterclockwise direction. A three-dimensional ...
s in 2D about the origin, that is, the special
orthogonal group
In mathematics, the orthogonal group in dimension , denoted , is the Group (mathematics), group of isometry, distance-preserving transformations of a Euclidean space of dimension that preserve a fixed point, where the group operation is given by ...
. An isomorphism is given by
(see
Euler's identity
In mathematics, Euler's identity (also known as Euler's equation) is the equality
e^ + 1 = 0
where
: is Euler's number, the base of natural logarithms,
: is the imaginary unit, which by definition satisfies , and
: is pi, the ratio of the circ ...
).
Matrices of real numbers
If ''
'' is the group of invertible
real
matrices
Matrix most commonly refers to:
* ''The Matrix'' (franchise), an American media franchise
** ''The Matrix'', a 1999 science-fiction action film
** "The Matrix", a fictional setting, a virtual reality environment, within ''The Matrix'' (franchis ...
, and ''
'' is the subgroup of
real matrices with
determinant
In mathematics, the determinant is a scalar value that is a function of the entries of a square matrix. It characterizes some properties of the matrix and the linear map represented by the matrix. In particular, the determinant is nonzero if and ...
1, then ''
'' is normal in ''
'' (since it is the
kernel
Kernel may refer to:
Computing
* Kernel (operating system), the central component of most operating systems
* Kernel (image processing), a matrix used for image convolution
* Compute kernel, in GPGPU programming
* Kernel method, in machine learn ...
of the determinant
homomorphism
In algebra, a homomorphism is a structure-preserving map between two algebraic structures of the same type (such as two groups, two rings, or two vector spaces). The word ''homomorphism'' comes from the Ancient Greek language: () meaning "same" ...
). The cosets of ''
'' are the sets of matrices with a given determinant, and hence ''
'' is isomorphic to the multiplicative group of non-zero real numbers. The group ''
'' is known as the
special linear group
In mathematics, the special linear group of degree ''n'' over a field ''F'' is the set of matrices with determinant 1, with the group operations of ordinary matrix multiplication and matrix inversion. This is the normal subgroup of the genera ...
.
Integer modular arithmetic
Consider the abelian group
(that is, the set
with addition
modulo 4), and its subgroup
. The quotient group
is
. This is a group with identity element
, and group operations such as
. Both the subgroup
and the quotient group
are isomorphic with
.
Integer multiplication
Consider the multiplicative group
. The set ''
'' of
th residues is a multiplicative subgroup isomorphic to
. Then ''
'' is normal in ''
'' and the factor group ''
'' has the cosets
. The
Paillier cryptosystem
The Paillier cryptosystem, invented by and named after Pascal Paillier in 1999, is a probabilistic asymmetric algorithm for public key cryptography. The problem of computing ''n''-th residue classes is believed to be computationally difficult. The ...
is based on the
conjecture
In mathematics, a conjecture is a conclusion or a proposition that is proffered on a tentative basis without proof. Some conjectures, such as the Riemann hypothesis (still a conjecture) or Fermat's Last Theorem (a conjecture until proven in 19 ...
that it is difficult to determine the coset of a random element of ''
'' without knowing the factorization of ''
''.
Properties
The quotient group
is
isomorphic
In mathematics, an isomorphism is a structure-preserving mapping between two structures of the same type that can be reversed by an inverse mapping. Two mathematical structures are isomorphic if an isomorphism exists between them. The word is ...
to the
trivial group
In mathematics, a trivial group or zero group is a group consisting of a single element. All such groups are isomorphic, so one often speaks of the trivial group. The single element of the trivial group is the identity element and so it is usuall ...
(the group with one element), and
is isomorphic to ''
''.
The
order of ''
'', by definition the number of elements, is equal to
, the
index
Index (or its plural form indices) may refer to:
Arts, entertainment, and media Fictional entities
* Index (''A Certain Magical Index''), a character in the light novel series ''A Certain Magical Index''
* The Index, an item on a Halo megastru ...
of ''
'' in ''
''. If ''
'' is finite, the index is also equal to the order of ''
'' divided by the order of ''
''. The set ''
'' may be finite, although both ''
'' and ''
'' are infinite (for example,
).
There is a "natural"
surjective
In mathematics, a surjective function (also known as surjection, or onto function) is a function that every element can be mapped from element so that . In other words, every element of the function's codomain is the image of one element of i ...
group homomorphism
In mathematics, given two groups, (''G'', ∗) and (''H'', ·), a group homomorphism from (''G'', ∗) to (''H'', ·) is a function ''h'' : ''G'' → ''H'' such that for all ''u'' and ''v'' in ''G'' it holds that
: h(u*v) = h(u) \cdot h(v)
wh ...
, sending each element
of ''
'' to the coset of ''
'' to which ''
'' belongs, that is:
. The mapping
is sometimes called the ''canonical projection of
onto
''. Its
kernel
Kernel may refer to:
Computing
* Kernel (operating system), the central component of most operating systems
* Kernel (image processing), a matrix used for image convolution
* Compute kernel, in GPGPU programming
* Kernel method, in machine learn ...
is ''
''.
There is a bijective correspondence between the subgroups of ''
'' that contain ''
'' and the subgroups of ''
''; if
is a subgroup of ''
'' containing ''
'', then the corresponding subgroup of ''
'' is
. This correspondence holds for normal subgroups of ''
'' and ''
'' as well, and is formalized in the
lattice theorem In group theory, the correspondence theorem
(also the lattice theorem,W.R. Scott: ''Group Theory'', Prentice Hall, 1964, p. 27. and variously and ambiguously the third and fourth isomorphism theorem
) states that if N is a normal subgroup of ...
.
Several important properties of quotient groups are recorded in the
fundamental theorem on homomorphisms
In abstract algebra, the fundamental theorem on homomorphisms, also known as the fundamental homomorphism theorem, or the first isomorphism theorem, relates the structure of two objects between which a homomorphism is given, and of the kernel and ...
and the
isomorphism theorem
In mathematics, specifically abstract algebra, the isomorphism theorems (also known as Noether's isomorphism theorems) are theorems that describe the relationship between quotients, homomorphisms, and subobjects. Versions of the theorems exist ...
s.
If ''
'' is
abelian,
nilpotent
In mathematics, an element x of a ring R is called nilpotent if there exists some positive integer n, called the index (or sometimes the degree), such that x^n=0.
The term was introduced by Benjamin Peirce in the context of his work on the cla ...
,
solvable,
cyclic
Cycle, cycles, or cyclic may refer to:
Anthropology and social sciences
* Cyclic history, a theory of history
* Cyclical theory, a theory of American political history associated with Arthur Schlesinger, Sr.
* Social cycle, various cycles in s ...
or
finitely generated, then so is ''
''.
If ''
'' is a subgroup in a finite group ''
'', and the order of ''
'' is one half of the order of ''
'', then ''
'' is guaranteed to be a normal subgroup, so ''
'' exists and is isomorphic to
. This result can also be stated as "any subgroup of index 2 is normal", and in this form it applies also to infinite groups. Furthermore, if
is the smallest prime number dividing the order of a finite group, ''
'', then if ''
'' has order ''
'', ''
'' must be a normal subgroup of ''
''.
Given ''
'' and a normal subgroup ''
'', then ''
'' is a
group extension
In mathematics, a group extension is a general means of describing a group in terms of a particular normal subgroup and quotient group. If Q and N are two groups, then G is an extension of Q by N if there is a short exact sequence
:1\to N\;\ove ...
of ''
'' by ''
''. One could ask whether this extension is trivial or split; in other words, one could ask whether ''
'' is a
direct product or
semidirect product of ''
'' and ''
''. This is a special case of the
extension problem
In mathematics, a group extension is a general means of describing a group in terms of a particular normal subgroup and quotient group. If Q and N are two groups, then G is an extension of Q by N if there is a short exact sequence
:1\to N\;\overs ...
. An example where the extension is not split is as follows: Let
, and
, which is isomorphic to
. Then ''
'' is also isomorphic to
. But
has only the trivial
automorphism, so the only semi-direct product of ''
'' and ''
'' is the direct product. Since
is different from
, we conclude that ''
'' is not a semi-direct product of ''
'' and ''
''.
Quotients of Lie groups
If ''
'' is a
Lie group
In mathematics, a Lie group (pronounced ) is a group that is also a differentiable manifold. A manifold is a space that locally resembles Euclidean space, whereas groups define the abstract concept of a binary operation along with the additio ...
and ''
'' is a normal and closed (in the topological rather than the algebraic sense of the word)
Lie subgroup
In mathematics, a Lie group (pronounced ) is a group that is also a differentiable manifold. A manifold is a space that locally resembles Euclidean space, whereas groups define the abstract concept of a binary operation along with the add ...
of ''
'', the quotient is also a Lie group. In this case, the original group ''
'' has the structure of a
fiber bundle
In mathematics, and particularly topology, a fiber bundle (or, in Commonwealth English: fibre bundle) is a space that is a product space, but may have a different topological structure. Specifically, the similarity between a space E and a p ...
(specifically, a
principal ''''-bundle), with base space and fiber ''
''. The dimension of equals
.
[John M. Lee, Introduction to Smooth Manifolds, Second Edition, theorem 21.17]
Note that the condition that ''
'' is closed is necessary. Indeed, if ''
'' is not closed then the quotient space is not a
T1-space
In topology and related branches of mathematics, a T1 space is a topological space in which, for every pair of distinct points, each has a neighborhood not containing the other point. An R0 space is one in which this holds for every pair of top ...
(since there is a coset in the quotient which cannot be separated from the identity by an open set), and thus not a
Hausdorff space
In topology and related branches of mathematics, a Hausdorff space ( , ), separated space or T2 space is a topological space where, for any two distinct points, there exist neighbourhoods of each which are disjoint from each other. Of the m ...
.
For a non-normal Lie subgroup ''
'', the space
of left cosets is not a group, but simply a
differentiable manifold
In mathematics, a differentiable manifold (also differential manifold) is a type of manifold that is locally similar enough to a vector space to allow one to apply calculus. Any manifold can be described by a collection of charts (atlas). One ma ...
on which ''
'' acts. The result is known as a
homogeneous space.
See also
*
Group extension
In mathematics, a group extension is a general means of describing a group in terms of a particular normal subgroup and quotient group. If Q and N are two groups, then G is an extension of Q by N if there is a short exact sequence
:1\to N\;\ove ...
*
Quotient category
In mathematics, a quotient category is a category obtained from another one by identifying sets of morphisms. Formally, it is a quotient object in the category of (locally small) categories, analogous to a quotient group or quotient space, bu ...
*
Short exact sequence
An exact sequence is a sequence of morphisms between objects (for example, groups, rings, modules, and, more generally, objects of an abelian category) such that the image of one morphism equals the kernel of the next.
Definition
In the context ...
Notes
References
*
* {{citation , last1=Herstein , first1=I. N. , year=1975 , title=Topics in Algebra , edition=2nd , publisher=
Wiley
Wiley may refer to:
Locations
* Wiley, Colorado, a U.S. town
* Wiley, Pleasants County, West Virginia, U.S.
* Wiley-Kaserne, a district of the city of Neu-Ulm, Germany
People
* Wiley (musician), British grime MC, rapper, and producer
* Wiley Mil ...
, location=New York , isbn=0-471-02371-X
Group theory
Group
A group is a number of persons or things that are located, gathered, or classed together.
Groups of people
* Cultural group, a group whose members share the same cultural identity
* Ethnic group, a group whose members share the same ethnic ide ...