''Question Mark'' ("''?''") was a modified
Atlantic-Fokker C-2A transport airplane of the
United States Army Air Corps
The United States Army Air Corps (USAAC) was the aerial warfare service component of the United States Army between 1926 and 1941. After World War I, as early aviation became an increasingly important part of modern warfare, a philosophical r ...
. In 1929, commanded by Major
Carl A. Spaatz, it was flown for a
flight endurance record
The flight endurance record is the longest amount of time an aircraft of a particular category spent in flight without landing. It can be a solo event, or multiple people can take turns piloting the aircraft, as long as all pilots remain in the ai ...
as part of an experiment with
aerial refueling. ''Question Mark'' established new world records in aviation for sustained flight (heavier-than-air), refueled flight, sustained flight (lighter-than-air), and distance between January 1 and January 7, 1929, in a nonstop flight of 151 hours near
Los Angeles
Los Angeles ( ; es, Los Ángeles, link=no , ), often referred to by its initials L.A., is the largest city in the state of California and the second most populous city in the United States after New York City, as well as one of the world' ...
,
California
California is a U.S. state, state in the Western United States, located along the West Coast of the United States, Pacific Coast. With nearly 39.2million residents across a total area of approximately , it is the List of states and territori ...
.
Following the record-setting demonstration, the C-2A was returned to transport duties. In 1931, more powerful engines replaced those used in the endurance flight and it was redesignated as a C-7 transport. The aircraft was damaged beyond economical repair in 1932, when it crash-landed in Texas after running out of fuel, and was scrapped.
The flight demonstrated the military application of the concept, but while it inspired numerous efforts to set even greater endurance records, development of a practical in-flight refueling system was largely ignored by the world's air forces before World War II. Civilian development of aerial refueling in
Great Britain
Great Britain is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean off the northwest coast of continental Europe. With an area of , it is the largest of the British Isles, the largest European island and the ninth-largest island in the world. It is ...
was more successful, but in the end, it, too, was disregarded. However, Spaatz, two decades after the flight of the ''Question Mark'', became head of the
United States Air Force
The United States Air Force (USAF) is the air service branch of the United States Armed Forces, and is one of the eight uniformed services of the United States. Originally created on 1 August 1907, as a part of the United States Army Signal ...
and using the British system as a starting point, implemented in-flight refueling on a worldwide operational basis.
Background
The first complete in-flight refueling between two aircraft took place on June 27, 1923,
[While they had passed minor amounts of fuel in practice, the June 27 flight was the first aerial refueling mission, an attempt to set an endurance mark.] when two
Boeing
The Boeing Company () is an American multinational corporation that designs, manufactures, and sells airplanes, rotorcraft, rockets, satellites, telecommunications equipment, and missiles worldwide. The company also provides leasing and product ...
-built
de Havilland
The de Havilland Aircraft Company Limited () was a British aviation manufacturer established in late 1920 by Geoffrey de Havilland at Stag Lane Aerodrome Edgware on the outskirts of north London. Operations were later moved to Hatfield in H ...
DH-4Bs of the
United States Army Air Service
The United States Army Air Service (USAAS)Craven and Cate Vol. 1, p. 9 (also known as the ''"Air Service"'', ''"U.S. Air Service"'' and before its legislative establishment in 1920, the ''"Air Service, United States Army"'') was the aerial war ...
accomplished the feat over
San Diego
San Diego ( , ; ) is a city on the Pacific Ocean coast of Southern California located immediately adjacent to the Mexico–United States border. With a 2020 population of 1,386,932, it is the List of United States cities by population, eigh ...
's
Rockwell Field
Rockwell Field is a former United States Army Air Corps (USAAC) military airfield, located northwest of the city of Coronado, California, on the northern part of the Coronado Peninsula across the bay from San Diego, California.
This airfield ...
. Subsequently, the same group of airmen established an endurance record of remaining aloft for more than 37 hours in August 1923, using nine aerial refuelings. In June 1928, a new endurance record of more than 61 hours was established in
Belgium
Belgium, ; french: Belgique ; german: Belgien officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a country in Northwestern Europe. The country is bordered by the Netherlands to the north, Germany to the east, Luxembourg to the southeast, France to th ...
by Adjutant Louis Crooy and Sgt. Victor Groenen, also using aerial refueling.
Second Lt.
Elwood R. Quesada
Elwood Richard Quesada, CB, CBE (April 13, 1904 – February 9, 1993), nicknamed "Pete", was a United States Air Force Lt. General, FAA administrator, and, later, a club owner in Major League Baseball.
Early years
Elwood Richard Quesada was bor ...
, an engineer of the
U.S. Army Air Corps
The United States Army Air Corps (USAAC) was the aerial warfare service component of the United States Army between 1926 and 1941. After World War I, as early aviation became an increasingly important part of modern warfare, a philosophical ri ...
stationed at
Bolling Field The origins of the surname Bolling:
English: from a nickname for someone with close-cropped hair or a large head, Middle English bolling "pollard", or for a heavy drinker, from Middle English bolling "excessive drinking".
German (Bölling): from ...
in
Washington, DC
)
, image_skyline =
, image_caption = Clockwise from top left: the Washington Monument and Lincoln Memorial on the National Mall, United States Capitol, Logan Circle, Jefferson Memorial, White House, Adams Morgan ...
, nearly crashed from lack of fuel in April 1928 while participating in a long-range rescue mission to
Labrador
, nickname = "The Big Land"
, etymology =
, subdivision_type = Country
, subdivision_name = Canada
, subdivision_type1 = Province
, subdivision_name1 ...
. Working with a
U.S. Marine Corps aviator from
Anacostia Naval Air Station, he devised a plan to break the Belgians' record using aerial refueling.
[According to the January 14, 1929 ''Time'' magazine, in addition to Crooy and Groenen's air-refueled record, an endurance record of 65 hours 31 minutes had been set in 1928 by a pair of Germans, Johann Risticz and Wilhelm Zimmerman, but they had not refueled during the flight.] Quesada submitted the plan to Capt.
Ira C. Eaker
General (Honorary) Ira Clarence Eaker (April 13, 1896 – August 6, 1987) was a general of the United States Army Air Forces during World War II. Eaker, as second-in-command of the prospective Eighth Air Force, was sent to England to form and ...
, an aide to
Assistant Secretary of War for Air
Assistant may refer to:
* Assistant (by Speaktoit), a virtual assistant app for smartphones
* Assistant (software), a software tool to assist in computer configuration
* Google Assistant, a virtual assistant by Google
* ''The Assistant'' (TV seri ...
F. Trubee Davison
Frederick Trubee Davison (February 7, 1896 – November 14, 1974) was an American World War I aviator, assistant United States Secretary of War, director of personnel for the Central Intelligence Agency, and president of the American Museum o ...
, who had also been on the April mission. Their mutual interest in air-to-air refueling led Eaker to forward it to Maj. Gen.
James E. Fechet, Chief of the Air Corps. Both Fechet and Davison approved the project on the condition that it demonstrate a military application and not just as a publicity stunt.
Overall command of the project was given to Major Carl A. Spaatz
[In 1929, the legal spelling of his name was "Spatz".] the Assistant
G-3 for Training and Operations in Fechet's office, who was on orders to take command of the
7th Bombardment Group at Rockwell Field.
Preparations
Aircraft modification
A new Atlantic-Fokker C-2A transport, serial number 28-120, was selected for the project. Assigned to the
14th Bombardment Squadron at Bolling Field, it was flown to
Middletown Air Depot,
Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania (; ( Pennsylvania Dutch: )), officially the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, is a state spanning the Mid-Atlantic, Northeastern, Appalachian, and Great Lakes regions of the United States. It borders Delaware to its southeast, ...
, for modifications. The C-2A was an American-built military version of the
Fokker F.VIIa-3m Trimotor, a high-wing monoplane with a gross weight of , re-engined with three
Wright R-790
The Wright R-790 Whirlwind was a series of nine-cylinder air-cooled radial aircraft engines built by Wright Aeronautical Corporation, with a total displacement of about and around . These engines were the earliest members of the Wright Whir ...
motors producing each. A C-2 variant nicknamed the ''
Bird of Paradise'' had made the first transpacific flight to Hawaii the year before and proven the capability of the design. The C-2A had an internal fuel capacity of in a pair of wing tanks, and for the project, two tanks were installed in the cargo cabin. A hatch was cut in the roof of the C-2 behind the wing for transfer of the fuel hose and passage of supplies from the tanker to the receiver. The 72-
octane
Octane is a hydrocarbon and an alkane with the chemical formula , and the condensed structural formula . Octane has many structural isomers that differ by the amount and location of branching in the carbon chain. One of these isomers, 2,2,4-Tri ...
aviation gasoline
Avgas (aviation gasoline, also known as aviation spirit in the UK) is an aviation fuel used in aircraft with spark-ignited internal combustion engines. ''Avgas'' is distinguished from conventional gasoline (petrol) used in motor vehicles, whi ...
would be received in increments of about 90 seconds' duration.
A tank was used to provide
engine oil
Motor oil, engine oil, or engine lubricant is any one of various substances used for the lubrication of internal combustion engines. They typically consist of base oils enhanced with various additives, particularly antiwear additives, detergen ...
to the three motors, replenished by in-flight deliveries of cans of
Pennzoil
Pennzoil is an American motor oil brand currently owned by Shell plc. The former Pennzoil Company had been established in 1913 in Pennsylvania, being active in business as an independent firm until it was acquired by Shell in 2002, becoming a bra ...
triple-extra-heavy lowered on slings.
A copper tubing system was installed in an attempt to adequately lubricate the
rocker arm
In the context of an internal combustion engine, a rocker arm is a valvetrain component that typically transfers the motion of a pushrod to the corresponding intake/exhaust valve.
Rocker arms in automobiles are typically made from stamped steel ...
s of the engines in-flight. Doorways were cut on each side of the cockpit and catwalks built on the wings to enable mechanic Roy Hooe to access the engines for emergency maintenance. To reduce
propeller
A propeller (colloquially often called a screw if on a ship or an airscrew if on an aircraft) is a device with a rotating hub and radiating blades that are set at a pitch to form a helical spiral which, when rotated, exerts linear thrust upon ...
noise, the two wing engines were mounted with
Westinghouse twin-blade
Micarta
Micarta is a brand name for composites of linen, canvas, paper, fiberglass, carbon fiber, or other fabric in a thermosetting plastic. It was originally used in electrical and decorative applications. Micarta was developed by George Westinghouse ...
propellers, while the nose engine used a
Standard Standard may refer to:
Symbols
* Colours, standards and guidons, kinds of military signs
* Standard (emblem), a type of a large symbol or emblem used for identification
Norms, conventions or requirements
* Standard (metrology), an object th ...
three-blade steel propeller.
As word of the project spread, its members were continually being asked how long they expected to remain aloft. Their responses were generally to the effect: "That is the question." A large
question mark
The question mark (also known as interrogation point, query, or eroteme in journalism) is a punctuation mark that indicates an interrogative clause or phrase in many languages.
History
In the fifth century, Syriac Bible manuscripts used ques ...
was painted on each side of the fuselage to provoke interest in the endurance flight, prompting the nickname of the plane.
To deliver the fuel, two
Douglas C-1
The Douglas C-1 was a cargo/transport aircraft produced by the Douglas Aircraft Corporation for the United States Army Air Service starting in 1925.
Design and development
Douglas received an order for nine single-engined transport aircraft in 1 ...
single-engine transports were also modified, s/n 25-428 designated "Refueling Airplane No. 1" and s/n 25-432 as "Refueling Airplane No. 2". The
biplane
A biplane is a fixed-wing aircraft with two main wings stacked one above the other. The first powered, controlled aeroplane to fly, the Wright Flyer, used a biplane wing arrangement, as did many aircraft in the early years of aviation. While ...
C-1s were evolved from the
Douglas World Cruiser
The Douglas World Cruiser (DWC) was developed to meet a requirement from the United States Army Air Service for an aircraft suitable for an attempt at the first flight around the world. The Douglas Aircraft Company responded with a modified varia ...
design, with the pilots side-by-side in an open cockpit forward of the wing. Two tanks were installed in their cargo compartments, attached to a
lead
Lead is a chemical element with the symbol Pb (from the Latin ) and atomic number 82. It is a heavy metal that is denser than most common materials. Lead is soft and malleable, and also has a relatively low melting point. When freshly cu ...
-weighted length of
fire hose
A fire hose (or firehose) is a high-pressure hose that carries water or other fire retardant (such as foam) to a fire to extinguish it. Outdoors, it attaches either to a fire engine, fire hydrant, or a portable fire pump. Indoors, it can perm ...
. The nozzle of the hose had a quick-closing valve on the tanker's end and was tightly wrapped with copper wire, one end of which could be attached to a corresponding copper plate mounted in ''Question Mark'' to
ground the hose.
The C-1s would each carry a third crewman in the cargo compartment to reel out the hose, lower a supply rope, and work the shutoff valve.
Planning
The operation was scheduled to begin Tuesday, January 1, 1929, at Los Angeles, California, to take advantage of weather conditions and to generate publicity while refueling by overflying the
1929 Rose Bowl football
Football is a family of team sports that involve, to varying degrees, kicking a ball to score a goal. Unqualified, the word ''football'' normally means the form of football that is the most popular where the word is used. Sports commonly c ...
game played that day in
Pasadena
Pasadena ( ) is a city in Los Angeles County, California, northeast of downtown Los Angeles. It is the most populous city and the primary cultural center of the San Gabriel Valley. Old Pasadena is the city's original commercial district.
...
. The refueling planes were based at each end of a 110-mi-long
racetrack
A race track (racetrack, racing track or racing circuit) is a facility built for racing of vehicles, athletes, or animals (e.g. horse racing or greyhound racing). A race track also may feature grandstands or concourses. Race tracks are also u ...
oval
An oval () is a closed curve in a plane which resembles the outline of an egg. The term is not very specific, but in some areas (projective geometry, technical drawing, etc.) it is given a more precise definition, which may include either one or ...
flight path, one at Rockwell Field and the other at the Metropolitan Airport, now
Van Nuys Airport
: ''For the United States Air Force use of the airport (1942–1990), see Van Nuys Air National Guard Base''
Van Nuys Airport is a public airport in the Van Nuys neighborhood of the City of Los Angeles. The airport is operated by Los Angeles ...
. The flight would originate and terminate there for any endurance record to be officially recognized by the
Fédération Aéronautique Internationale
The (; FAI; en, World Air Sports Federation) is the world governing body for air sports, and also stewards definitions regarding human spaceflight. It was founded on 14 October 1905, and is headquartered in Lausanne, Switzerland. It maintai ...
.
Van Nuys was chosen over an existing dirt-strip airfield,
Mines Field
Los Angeles International Airport , commonly referred to as LAX (with each letter pronounced individually), is the primary international airport serving Los Angeles, California and its surrounding metropolitan area. LAX is located in the ...
, located at
El Segundo, because the weather in Van Nuys was considered more reliable and predictable, particularly in regard to
temperature inversion
In meteorology, an inversion is a deviation from the normal change of an atmospheric property with altitude. It almost always refers to an inversion of the air temperature lapse rate, in which case it is called a temperature inversion. No ...
s and
smog
Smog, or smoke fog, is a type of intense air pollution. The word "smog" was coined in the early 20th century, and is a portmanteau of the words ''smoke'' and '' fog'' to refer to smoky fog due to its opacity, and odor. The word was then inte ...
. Metropolitan was also an operational facility, while Mines Field had just been procured by the City of Los Angeles for use as a commercial airport. The project arrived there in December 1928 to begin preparations for the flight, with Capt. Hugh M. Elmendorf in charge of logistics and maintenance.
Because of weight considerations and the unreliability of radios, none was installed in the ''Question Mark''. All communications between the aircraft or between ''Question Mark'' and the ground had to be accomplished using flags, flares, flashlights, weighted message bags, notes tied to the supply lines, or messages written in chalk on the fuselages of
PW-9D fighters, painted black and nicknamed "blackboard planes".
(One such message written on the side of a 95th Pursuit Squadron is externally linked below.)
[The first message delivered by chalked message was: "Don't forget Rose Bowl". (Maurer, p. 263)]
Six days in the air
Crews
The crew of ''Question Mark'' consisted of Spaatz, Eaker, Quesada,
1st Lt. Harry A. Halverson, and
Sgt.
Sergeant (abbreviated to Sgt. and capitalized when used as a named person's title) is a rank in many uniformed organizations, principally military and policing forces. The alternative spelling, ''serjeant'', is used in The Rifles and other uni ...
Roy W. Hooe. Refueling Airplane No. 1 (at Rockwell) was crewed by pilots Capt. Ross G. Hoyt and 1st Lt. Auby C. Strickland, with 2nd Lt. Irwin A. Woodring reeling the hose. Refueling Airplane No. 2 (at Van Nuys) was crewed by pilots 1st Lt.
Odas Moon
Odas Moon (February 11, 1892 – November 19, 1937) was an American aviation pioneer who was among a team of United States Army Air Corps (USAAC) aviators to break endurance records by performing aerial refueling. Moon was a founding member of the ...
and 2nd Lt. Joseph G. Hopkins, and hose handler 2nd Lt. Andrew F. Solter.
Four pilots of the
95th Pursuit Squadron, based at Rockwell Field, flew the PW-9 "blackboard planes": 1st Lt. Archie F. Roth, and 2nd Lts. Homer W. Kiefer, Norman H. Ives, and Roger V. Williams.
Takeoff and refueling
''Question Mark'' took off from Van Nuys at 7:26 am on
New Year's Day
New Year's Day is a festival observed in most of the world on 1 January, the first day of the year in the modern Gregorian calendar. 1 January is also New Year's Day on the Julian calendar, but this is not the same day as the Gregorian one. Wh ...
1929 with Eaker at the controls, carrying only of fuel to save takeoff weight.
Aboard the ''Question Mark'', either Halverson or Quesada did most of the piloting during cruising flight while Eaker monitored the throttles for smoothest engine performance. A log was kept by the flight officer (co-pilot) and dropped to the ground daily, and Eaker was responsible for winding the
barograph
A barograph is a barometer that records the barometric pressure over time in graphical form. This instrument is also used to make a continuous recording of atmospheric pressure. The pressure-sensitive element, a partially evacuated metal cylinde ...
, an instrument that continuously recorded altitude and time as documentary evidence for the records.
Less than an hour later, Moon completed the first refueling over Van Nuys. During refuelings, Eaker and Halverson manned the controls, Spaatz and Quesada supervised the fuel exchange, and Hooe operated a "wobble" pump. The C-1 approached the ''Question Mark'' from above and behind, maintaining 20 to of vertical separation, until in a position slightly ahead of the C-2. Both aircraft stabilized in level flight at and the hose was reeled out. Spaatz climbed on a platform below the open hatch, and wearing rain gear and goggles for protection against fuel spills, grounded the hose and then placed it in a receptacle mounted in the upper fuselage.
Made from a bucket with a sloped floor, the receptacle had connections to the two extra fuel tanks, and at Spaatz's signal, Solter opened the valve. Fuel flowed by gravity into the bucket at per minute and then into the tanks, where it was then pumped by hand into the wing tanks by Hooe.
Food, mail, tools, spare parts, and other supplies were also passed by rope in the same fashion.
Sustaining flight
The five men aboard ''Question Mark'' underwent medical examinations before the flight, and their flight surgeon planned a special diet. However, an electric stove to heat food was eliminated to save weight, and hot meals were sent aloft by the refuelers, including a turkey dinner on New Years Day prepared by a church in Van Nuys.
The crew warded off boredom by reading, playing cards, sleeping in bunks mounted over the fuel tanks, and writing letters. After the existing endurance record was surpassed on Thursday evening, January 3, the support crew sent up cheese, figs, olives, and five jars of
caviar
Caviar (also known as caviare; from fa, خاویار, khâvyâr, egg-bearing) is a food consisting of salt-cured roe of the family Acipenseridae. Caviar is considered a delicacy and is eaten as a garnish or a spread. Traditionally, the te ...
for an in-flight celebration.
[On the other hand, when Spaatz's wife Ruth pointed out the aircraft passing overhead to their seven-year-old daughter Tattie after it had set the new record, rather than being impressed, the child reportedly said, "I think it's kind of dumb." (Davis, p. 22)]
During a refueling,
[Bakse (p. 53, quoting Eaker) and Davis place this incident while the ''Question Mark'' was refueling over the Rose Bowl game on the afternoon of January 1. Boyne (p. 70) and Maurer (p. 262), using the flight record, place it just after midnight January 2.] Spaatz was drenched with fuel when turbulence caused the hose to pull out of the receptacle. Recalling the event in 1975, Eaker said:
We went over the Rose Bowl. It was very bumpy, as you can appreciate, as we should have appreciated, up against those mountains in January, and the refueling plane and the ''Question Mark'' were torn apart. I was piloting the ''Question Mark'' and I realized that General Spaatz had probably been drenched in high-octane gasoline.
Quesada was at the controls and flew the aircraft over the ocean for calmer air.
Fearing that chemical burns from the gasoline might force him to parachute from the airplane to seek medical treatment, Spaatz ordered Eaker to continue the flight regardless.
However, Spaatz shed all his clothing and was wiped off with oil-soaked rags. Although he directed at least one refueling without his clothing, replacements were soon delivered.
Quesada was briefly overcome by the same accident, but quickly revived.
Spaatz experienced two other fuel spills without injury, using oil to wipe his skin and
zinc oxide
Zinc oxide is an inorganic compound with the formula . It is a white powder that is insoluble in water. ZnO is used as an additive in numerous materials and products including cosmetics, food supplements, rubbers, plastics, ceramics, glass, cemen ...
to protect his eyes.
Fog, turbulence, and darkness altered the refueling schedule, shortening some contacts and delaying others. On six occasions, the ''Question Mark'' was forced away from its flight track to refuel, once over
Oceanside and five times over
El Centro
El Centro (Spanish for "The Center") is a city and county seat of Imperial County, California, United States. El Centro is the largest city in the Imperial Valley, the east anchor of the Southern California Border Region, and the core urban are ...
.
Maintaining contact formation became more difficult as the weight of the planes changed during transfer, especially since the refueling pilot could not observe the ''Question Mark''. On January 4, after the aircraft rendezvoused over the
Imperial Valley
, photo = Salton Sea from Space.jpg
, photo_caption = The Imperial Valley below the Salton Sea. The US-Mexican border runs diagonally across the lower left of the image.
, map_image = Newriverwatershed-1-.jpg
, map_caption = Map of Imperial ...
, both nearly impacted the ground when they encountered an unexpected air pocket while refueling.
Hoyt developed a system whereby Woodring tugged on a string tied to the pilot's arm if the C-1's speed was excessive.
Early in the flight, a window blew out of the C-2's cabin, but a replacement was eventually hauled up and installed by Hooe. A leak in a fuel line was repaired using a mixture of
red lead
Red is the color at the long wavelength end of the visible spectrum of light, next to orange and opposite violet. It has a dominant wavelength of approximately 625–740 nanometres. It is a primary color in the RGB color model and a secondar ...
, soap, and shellac hauled up by tanker.
End of the flight
Although the crew flew the plane at slow cruising speeds to nurse the engines, they were eventually overstressed from extended use. The left engine began losing power as early as the third day.
Hooe taped down his trouser cuffs, donned a parachute, and rigged a lifeline to service the engines from the makeshift catwalks, but the in-flight lubricating systems only delayed and could not prevent engine wear. Once the cylinders began missing, the ''Question Mark'' shortened its loops to remain within gliding distance of Van Nuys. Eaker was able to clear fouled
spark plugs by completely opening the throttles.
On the afternoon of Monday, January 7, the left wing engine quit. Hooe went out on the catwalk to attempt repairs, immobilizing the
windmilling propeller with a rubber hook. Eaker increased throttle on the remaining two engines to maintain flight while repairs were attempted, but they, too, began to strain. The plane lost altitude from 5,000 to before Hooe was called back inside and the decision made to land.
The ''Question Mark'' landed under power at Metropolitan Airport at 2:06 pm, 150 hours, 40 minutes, and 14 seconds after takeoff. The left engine had seized because of a
pushrod
A valvetrain or valve train is a mechanical system that controls the operation of the intake and exhaust valves in an internal combustion engine. The intake valves control the flow of air/fuel mixture (or air alone for direct-injected engines) ...
failure, and the others both suffered severe
rocker arm
In the context of an internal combustion engine, a rocker arm is a valvetrain component that typically transfers the motion of a pushrod to the corresponding intake/exhaust valve.
Rocker arms in automobiles are typically made from stamped steel ...
wear.
Results
Refueled 37 times and resupplied six others, with 12 of the 43 replenishments taking place at night, the ''Question Mark'' took on of fuel, of oil, and supplies of food and water for its five-man crew. Hoyt and Refueling Airplane No. 1, flying from Rockwell and a backup airport at
Imperial, California
Imperial is a city in Imperial County, California, north of El Centro.
As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 14,758. It is part of the El Centro metropolitan area. In 2016, Imperial was the fourth fastest-growing city in the st ...
, resupplied ''Question Mark'' a total of 27 times (10 at night), while Moon's crew at Van Nuys flew 16 sorties, two at night.
In all, the flight broke existing world records for sustained flight (heavier-than-air), refueled flight, sustained flight (lighter-than-air), and distance.
All five crew members were decorated with the
Distinguished Flying Cross at a ceremony held at Bolling Field on January 29.
[Meal vouchers submitted to the War Department for the cost of food during the flight were instead forwarded to the ]Comptroller General
A comptroller (pronounced either the same as ''controller'' or as ) is a management-level position responsible for supervising the quality of accounting and financial reporting of an organization. A financial comptroller is a senior-level execut ...
, who refused payment on the grounds that none of the circumstances encountered obligated the United States to pay for their subsistence. (Davis, p. 23) The crews of the tankers, though, went unrecognized. Eventually, all six received letters of commendation for their participation, but only 47 years later was their vital role in the operation recognized with decorations. By then, only Hoyt and Hopkins remained living, but both personally received Distinguished Flying Crosses on May 26, 1976.
Follow-up efforts
Eaker was involved in a second attempt at aerial refueling in September 1929. Piloting a
Boeing Model 95 mail plane
A mail plane is an aircraft used for carrying mail.
Aircraft that were purely mail planes existed almost exclusively prior to World War II. Because early aircraft were too underpowered to carry cargoes, and too costly to run any "economy class" ...
nicknamed the ''Boeing Hornet Shuttle'' on a transcontinental endurance flight eastbound from
Oakland, California
Oakland is the largest city and the county seat of Alameda County, California, United States. A major West Coast of the United States, West Coast port, Oakland is the largest city in the East Bay region of the San Francisco Bay Area, the third ...
, he was refueled in flight by C-1s and
Boeing Model 40 aircraft. Over
Cleveland, Ohio
Cleveland ( ), officially the City of Cleveland, is a city in the U.S. state of Ohio and the county seat of Cuyahoga County. Located in the northeastern part of the state, it is situated along the southern shore of Lake Erie, across the U.S. ...
, a Boeing refueling crew accidentally dropped a five-gallon
can of oil
An oil can (oilcan or oiler)[Utah
Utah ( , ) is a state in the Mountain West subregion of the Western United States. Utah is a landlocked U.S. state bordered to its east by Colorado, to its northeast by Wyoming, to its north by Idaho, to its south by Arizona, and to it ...]
when dirt clogged the fuel line, forcing him to crash land in the mountains near
Salt Lake City
Salt Lake City (often shortened to Salt Lake and abbreviated as SLC) is the Capital (political), capital and List of cities and towns in Utah, most populous city of Utah, United States. It is the county seat, seat of Salt Lake County, Utah, Sal ...
.
The flight of the ''Question Mark'' inspired a rash of projects to break the endurance record. In 1929 alone, 40 flights were attempted, all by civilians, and nine succeeded in surpassing ''Question Marks record. At the end of 1929, the record stood at over 420 hours, established by Dale "Red" Jackson and Forest E. "Obie" O'Brine in the
Curtiss Robin
The Curtiss Robin, introduced in 1928, was a high-wing monoplane built by the Curtiss-Robertson Airplane Manufacturing Company.
The J-1 version was flown by Wrongway Corrigan who crossed the Atlantic after being refused permission.
Design
The ...
''Greater St. Louis.''
The Air Corps followed up the flight of the ''Question Mark'' with a mission to demonstrate its applicability in combat. On May 21, 1929, during annual maneuvers, a
Keystone LB-7 piloted by Moon took off from
Fairfield Air Depot in
Dayton, Ohio
Dayton () is the sixth-largest city in the U.S. state of Ohio and the county seat of Montgomery County. A small part of the city extends into Greene County. The 2020 U.S. census estimate put the city population at 137,644, while Greater Day ...
, on a simulated mission to New York City via Washington, DC. Plans were for the bomber to be refueled in flight several times, drop a
flash bomb over New York harbor, then return to Dayton nonstop, again by way of Washington. Moon had 1st Lt. John Paul Richter, a hose handler on the first aerial refueling mission in 1923, as a member of his five-man crew. The C-1 tanker employed to refuel the LB-7 was flown by Hoyt and two enlisted men. While attempting an air refueling en route from Dayton to Washington, icing forced the tanker to land in
Uniontown, Pennsylvania
Uniontown is a city in Fayette County, Pennsylvania, United States, southeast of Pittsburgh and part of the Greater Pittsburgh Region. The population was 10,372 at the 2010 census, down from 12,422 at the 2000 census. It is the county seat and ...
, where it got stuck in mud. After flying to New York, the LB-7 was forced to land at Bolling Field.
The next day, the tanker joined the bomber and both flew to New York, where they made a public demonstration of air refueling and four dry runs.
Legacy
Of the 16 Army aviators involved in the project, six later became
general officer
A general officer is an officer of high rank in the armies, and in some nations' air forces, space forces, and marines or naval infantry.
In some usages the term "general officer" refers to a rank above colonel."general, adj. and n.". OED O ...
s. Spaatz, Eaker, and Quesada played important roles in the US Army Air Forces during World War II. Spaatz rose to commanding general of the Army Air Forces and became the first
Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force
The chief of staff of the Air Force (acronym: CSAF, or AF/CC) is a statutory office () held by a general in the United States Air Force, and as such is the principal military advisor to the secretary of the Air Force on matter pertaining to th ...
. Eaker commanded the
Eighth and Mediterranean Allied Air Forces. Quesada commanded the
IX Tactical Air Command
The IX Tactical Air Command was a formation of the United States Army Air Forces. It fought in the European theater of World War II. Its last assignment was at Camp Shanks, New York, where it was inactivated on 25 October 1945.
History
Formed ...
in France. Strickland, Hoyt, and Hopkins all became brigadier generals in the United States Air Force and the ''Brigadier General Ross G. Hoyt Award'' is issued annually for the best air refueling crew in the Air Force. Halverson, though he rose only to colonel, led the HAL-PRO ("Halverson Project") detachment, 12
Consolidated B-24 Liberator
The Consolidated B-24 Liberator is an American heavy bomber, designed by Consolidated Aircraft of San Diego, California. It was known within the company as the Model 32, and some initial production aircraft were laid down as export models des ...
s that bombed the
Ploiești
Ploiești ( , , ), formerly spelled Ploești, is a city and county seat in Prahova County, Romania. Part of the historical region of Muntenia, it is located north of Bucharest.
The area of Ploiești is around , and it borders the Blejoi commu ...
oil refineries in 1942, and became the first commander of the
Tenth Air Force
The Tenth Air Force (10 AF) is a unit of the U.S. Air Force, specifically a numbered air force of the Air Force Reserve Command (AFRC). 10 AF is headquartered at Naval Air Station Fort Worth Joint Reserve Base/Carswell Field (formerly Carswell AF ...
.
Moon, a bomber pilot, became an influential member of the "
Bomber Mafia
The Bomber Mafia were a close-knit group of American military men who believed that long-range heavy bomber aircraft in large numbers were able to win a war. The derogatory term "Bomber Mafia" was used before and after World War II by those in t ...
" at the
Air Corps Tactical School
The Air Corps Tactical School, also known as ACTS and "the Tactical School", was a military professional development school for officers of the United States Army Air Service and United States Army Air Corps, the first such school in the world. C ...
from 1933 to 1936,
but died on November 19, 1937, awaiting retirement from the service at the age of 45.
Solter, a pursuit pilot, was killed in an accident flight testing an all-metal trainer at
Randolph Field
Randolph Air Force Base was an United States Air Force base located at Universal City, Texas ( east-northeast of Downtown San Antonio).
Opened in 1931, Randolph has been a flying training facility for the United States Army Air Corps, the Un ...
, Texas, in September 1936.
[ ] Elmendorf, while not having a flying role in the project, was an accomplished test pilot and was killed on January 13, 1933, testing the
Y1P-25 at
Wright Field
Wilbur Wright Field was a military installation and an airfield used as a World War I pilot, mechanic, and armorer training facility and, under different designations, conducted United States Army Air Corps and Air Forces flight testing. Lo ...
, Ohio.
Elmendorf Air Force Base
Elmendorf Air Force Base is a United States Air Force (USAF) facility in Anchorage, Alaska. Originally known as Elmendorf Field, it became Elmendorf Air Force Base after World War II.
It is the home of the Headquarters, Alaskan Air Command (AL ...
was named in his memory.
The ''Question Mark'' was refitted with Wright R-975 engines in 1931, and in the practice of the day was redesignated a "C-7". It finished its service life as a transport airplane, first for the
22nd Observation Squadron at
Pope Field
Pope Field is a U.S. military facility located 12 miles (19 km) northwest of the central business district of Fayetteville, in Cumberland County, North Carolina, United States.. Federal Aviation Administration. effective 15 November 2012 ...
, North Carolina, and then with the 47th School Squadron at
Randolph Field
Randolph Air Force Base was an United States Air Force base located at Universal City, Texas ( east-northeast of Downtown San Antonio).
Opened in 1931, Randolph has been a flying training facility for the United States Army Air Corps, the Un ...
, Texas. Ironically, its operational life came to an end when it ran out of fuel in flight on November 3, 1932. The aircraft was severely damaged trying to land at Davenport Auxiliary Field, north of the base,
[, entry "321103"][, entry "321103"][Flying the transport at the time of the crash was a veteran enlisted pilot, M/Sgt. Ezra F. Nendell.] and was surveyed (scrapped) in 1934. A major component of the refueling device is in the collections of the
Historical Society of Berks County in
Reading, Pennsylvania
Reading ( ; Pennsylvania Dutch: ''Reddin'') is a city in and the county seat of Berks County, Pennsylvania, United States. The city had a population of 95,112 as of the 2020 census and is the fourth-largest city in Pennsylvania after Philade ...
.
Of its military potential, historian Richard Davis wrote in a biography of Spaatz: "Perceptive observers noted that if Spaatz and his crew could man a craft that long, so could bomber crews."
In his report to Fechet, Spaatz concluded that aerial refueling was both safe and practical, and that for bombardment operations it made the potential radius of action of a bomber almost unlimited while allowing it to carry heavier bomb loads because the weight of fuel at takeoff could be reduced. However, neither the War Department nor the Air Corps showed any further interest in the concept. As a result, the only immediate effect of the flight was to start a craze among aviators that one official USAF history characterized as "aeronautical
flagpole sitting."
[The craze lasted six years without producing significant advancements in aircraft engineering. The record for a single continuous flight, lasting 27 days in the summer of 1935, was established by the Key brothers in a ]Curtiss Robin
The Curtiss Robin, introduced in 1928, was a high-wing monoplane built by the Curtiss-Robertson Airplane Manufacturing Company.
The J-1 version was flown by Wrongway Corrigan who crossed the Atlantic after being refused permission.
Design
The ...
nicknamed the ''Ole Miss''. The tanker, also a Curtiss Robin, made 113 takeoffs and 484 fuel transfers. Their record has gone unchallenged and the ''Ole Miss'' was placed on display at the National Air and Space Museum
The National Air and Space Museum of the Smithsonian Institution, also called the Air and Space Museum, is a museum in Washington, D.C., in the United States.
Established in 1946 as the National Air Museum, it opened its main building on the Nat ...
. (Smith, pp. 8–9)
The flight of the ''Question Mark'' did spark an interest in aerial refueling by the
Royal Air Force
The Royal Air Force (RAF) is the United Kingdom's air and space force. It was formed towards the end of the First World War on 1 April 1918, becoming the first independent air force in the world, by regrouping the Royal Flying Corps (RFC) and ...
, seeking to minimize takeoff weights of its bombers and reduce wear-and-tear on its grass airfields, but after a series of experiments between 1930 and 1937, they abandoned testing.
The development of better engines,
variable-pitch propellers and all-metal low-wing monoplanes capable of greater range deferred further military interest in aerial refueling, but when the next war turned out to be global in scale, also resulted in lack of capability for many ferrying, antisubmarine, and bombardment operations requiring extended range.
In 1934, Sir
Alan Cobham
Sir Alan John Cobham, KBE, AFC (6 May 1894 – 21 October 1973) was an English aviation pioneer.
Early life and family
As a child he attended Wilson's School, then in Camberwell, London. The school relocated to the former site of Croydo ...
founded
Flight Refuelling Ltd
Flight or flying is the process by which an object moves through a space without contacting any planetary surface, either within an atmosphere (i.e. air flight or aviation) or through the vacuum of outer space (i.e. spaceflight). This ca ...
(FRL), and by 1938 used a "looped-hose" system similar in design principle to that of the ''Question Mark'' to refuel large aircraft. In 1939, trials to perform aerial refueling of
Short Empire
The Short Empire was a medium-range four-engined monoplane flying boat, designed and developed by Short Brothers during the 1930s to meet the requirements of the growing commercial airline sector, with a particular emphasis upon its usefulness ...
flying boats began, but were suspended after 16 flights following the outbreak of World War II.
"Refuelling In Flight", ''Flight'' magazine, August 25, 1940
/ref> Near the end of the war, Avro Lincolns of RAF Tiger Force
Tiger Force was the name of a long-range reconnaissance patrol unit of the 1st Battalion (Airborne), 327th Infantry, 1st Brigade (Separate), 101st Airborne Division, which fought in the Vietnam War from November 1965 to November 1967. The unit ...
were to have been in-flight refueled by Avro Lancaster
The Avro Lancaster is a British Second World War heavy bomber. It was designed and manufactured by Avro as a contemporary of the Handley Page Halifax, both bombers having been developed to the same specification, as well as the Short Stirlin ...
s fitted with looped-hose systems for long-range bombing operations against Japan, but the capture of Okinawa obviated fielding of the tanker force. British Overseas Airways Corporation
British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) was the British state-owned airline created in 1939 by the merger of Imperial Airways and British Airways Ltd. It continued operating overseas services throughout World War II. After the passi ...
attempted to revive Cobham's concept following the end of the war, but became disenchanted with the process.[Trials were run under the auspices of BOAC and its fellow nationalized airline British South American Airways in the winter of 1946–1947. They were on the whole successful, but BOAC was much more interested in investing in ]Lockheed Constellation
The Lockheed Constellation ("Connie") is a propeller-driven, four-engined airliner built by Lockheed Corporation starting in 1943. The Constellation series was the first pressurized-cabin civil airliner series to go into widespread use. Its press ...
s and Boeing Stratocruiser
The Boeing 377 Stratocruiser was a large long-range airliner developed from the C-97 Stratofreighter military transport, itself a derivative of the B-29 Superfortress. The Stratocruiser's first flight was on July 8, 1947. Its design was advanced ...
s, which already had the range for Trans-Atlantic passenger operations, than in aerial refueling, in which some of its crews were reluctant to engage. (Smith, pp. 17–18)
In January 1948, 19 years after he commanded the ''Question Mark'' project, USAF Chief of Staff Spaatz made aerial refueling the Air Force's top strategic priority. In March, the service purchased two sets of FRL looped-hose equipment and manufacturing rights to the system. Flight testing of the equipment in two Boeing B-29 Superfortress
The Boeing B-29 Superfortress is an American four-engined propeller-driven heavy bomber, designed by Boeing and flown primarily by the United States during World War II and the Korean War. Named in allusion to its predecessor, the B-17 Fl ...
es began in May with such success that in June, the decision was made to retrofit all of its first-line B-50 bombers with aerial refueling equipment. The world's first two dedicated air refueling units, the 43rd and 509th Air Refueling Squadrons, were constituted on June 30 and became operational in January 1949. With the development in 1948 of a "flying boom" delivery system, followed in 1949 by the "probe-and-drogue" system, in-flight refueling of fighter aircraft using single-point receiving equipment also became practical and USAF committed itself to the concept for the bulk of its future combat aircraft.
See also
* ''Bird of Paradise''
* ''Miss Veedol''
Notes
:Footnotes
;Citations
References
*Adams, Robert F. (editor) (1997). ''Defenders of Liberty: 2nd Bombardment Group/Wing 1918–1993'', Turner Publishing, Paducah, Kentucky,
*Bakse, Collin (editor) (1996)
''Airlift Tanker: History of U.S. Airlift and Tanker Forces''
Turner Publishing, Paducah, Kentucky.
*
*
*
*Forden, Lesley (1973)
Aviation Foundation of America (2003 reprint).
*Maurer Maurer (1987). ttps://books.google.com/books?id=E1gGW_TqLawC&pg=PA261&lpg=PA261&dq=%22odas+moon%22&source=web&ots=ysvdrd56N8&sig=51PK7H94Cyc2Uqk8Q6BubWLH7v8&hl=en#PPR1,M1 ''Aviation in the U.S. Army, 1919–1939'' Office of Air Force History, Headquarters USAF, Washington, D.C.
*Smith, Richard K. (1998)
''Seventy-Five Years of Inflight Refueling: Highlights 1923–1998''
{dead link, date=September 2017 , bot=InternetArchiveBot , fix-attempted=yes Air Force History and Museums, Air University, Maxwell AFB
External links
"Flight of the Question Mark"
Air Mobility Command History Office.
NMUSAF photo of ''Question Mark'' post-flight
NMUSAF photo of Douglas C-1 in flight
13th photo down is of message written to Major Spaatz on side of PW-9 fighter of 95th PS at Rockwell Field
National Museum of the USAF fact page: Flight of the "Question Mark"
with images
Individual aircraft
1920s United States military transport aircraft
1930s United States military transport aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1928
High-wing aircraft
Trimotors