''Quercus robur'', commonly known as common oak, pedunculate oak, European oak or English oak, is a species of
flowering plant
Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits, and form the clade Angiospermae (), commonly called angiosperms. The term "angiosperm" is derived from the Greek words ('container, vessel') and ('seed'), and refers to those plants th ...
in the beech and
oak
An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus ''Quercus'' (; Latin "oak tree") of the beech family, Fagaceae. There are approximately 500 extant species of oaks. The common name "oak" also appears in the names of species in related genera, notably ''L ...
family,
Fagaceae
The Fagaceae are a family of flowering plants that includes beeches, chestnuts and oaks, and comprises eight genera with about 927 species. Fagaceae in temperate regions are mostly deciduous, whereas in the tropics, many species occur as evergre ...
. It is a large tree,
native
Native may refer to:
People
* Jus soli, citizenship by right of birth
* Indigenous peoples, peoples with a set of specific rights based on their historical ties to a particular territory
** Native Americans (disambiguation)
In arts and entert ...
to most of
Europe
Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a Continent#Subcontinents, subcontinent of Eurasia ...
west of the
Caucasus
The Caucasus () or Caucasia (), is a region between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, mainly comprising Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and parts of Southern Russia. The Caucasus Mountains, including the Greater Caucasus range, have historically ...
. It is widely cultivated in temperate regions elsewhere and has escaped into the wild in scattered parts of China and North America.
Description
![Oaksprout](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/Oaksprout.jpg)
''Quercus robur'' is a large
deciduous
In the fields of horticulture and Botany, the term ''deciduous'' () means "falling off at maturity" and "tending to fall off", in reference to trees and shrubs that seasonally shed leaves, usually in the autumn; to the shedding of petals, aft ...
tree, with circumference of grand oaks from to an exceptional . The Majesty Oak with a circumference of is the thickest tree in
Great Britain
Great Britain is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean off the northwest coast of continental Europe. With an area of , it is the largest of the British Isles, the largest European island and the ninth-largest island in the world. It is ...
. The Brureika (
Bridal Oak) in
Norway
Norway, officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic country in Northern Europe, the mainland territory of which comprises the western and northernmost portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula. The remote Arctic island of Jan Mayen and t ...
with a circumference of (2018) and the
Kaive Oak
The Kaive Oak ( lv, Kaives ozols) is an oak tree (''Quercus robur'') in Sēme Parish, Tukums Municipality, Latvia. It is situated about 500 m from Kaive Manor, in a meadow. It is protected as a natural monument in Latvia.
Perimeter: 10.4&n ...
in
Latvia
Latvia ( or ; lv, Latvija ; ltg, Latveja; liv, Leţmō), officially the Republic of Latvia ( lv, Latvijas Republika, links=no, ltg, Latvejas Republika, links=no, liv, Leţmō Vabāmō, links=no), is a country in the Baltic region of ...
with a circumference of are among the thickest trees in
Northern Europe
The northern region of Europe has several definitions. A restrictive definition may describe Northern Europe as being roughly north of the southern coast of the Baltic Sea, which is about 54th parallel north, 54°N, or may be based on other g ...
. The largest historical oak was known as the Imperial Oak from Bosnia and Herzegovina. This specimen was recorded at 17.5 m in circumference at breast height and estimated at over 150 m³ in total volume. It collapsed in 1998. The species has lobed and nearly sessile (very short-stalked)
leaves
A leaf (plural, : leaves) is any of the principal appendages of a vascular plant plant stem, stem, usually borne laterally aboveground and specialized for photosynthesis. Leaves are collectively called foliage, as in "autumn foliage", wh ...
long. Flowering takes place in mid spring, and the fruit, called
acorn
The acorn, or oaknut, is the nut of the oaks and their close relatives (genera ''Quercus'' and '' Lithocarpus'', in the family Fagaceae). It usually contains one seed (occasionally
two seeds), enclosed in a tough, leathery shell, and borne ...
s, ripen by mid autumn. The acorns are long, pedunculate (having a peduncle or acorn-stalk, long) with one to four acorns on each peduncle.
It is a long-lived tree, with a large wide spreading crown of rugged branches. While it may naturally live to an age of a few centuries, many of the oldest trees are
pollarded
Pollarding is a pruning system involving the removal of the upper branches of a tree, which promotes the growth of a dense head of foliage and branches. In ancient Rome, Propertius mentioned pollarding during the 1st century BCE. The practice oc ...
or
coppice
Coppicing is a traditional method of woodland management which exploits the capacity of many species of trees to put out new shoots from their stump or roots if cut down. In a coppiced wood, which is called a copse, young tree stems are repeated ...
d, both pruning techniques that extend the tree's potential lifespan, if not its health. Two individuals of notable longevity are the
Stelmužė Oak
The Stelmužė Oak ( lt, Stelmužės ąžuolas) is an English (Pedunculate) oak tree which grows in the former Stelmužė Manor park by Stelmužė tεɫˈmʊʒeːvillage, Lithuania.
The oak measures 3.5 m in diameter and 13 m in girth at its wi ...
in
Lithuania
Lithuania (; lt, Lietuva ), officially the Republic of Lithuania ( lt, Lietuvos Respublika, links=no ), is a country in the Baltic region of Europe. It is one of three Baltic states and lies on the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea. Lithuania ...
and the
Granit Oak in
Bulgaria
Bulgaria (; bg, България, Bǎlgariya), officially the Republic of Bulgaria,, ) is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the eastern flank of the Balkans, and is bordered by Romania to the north, Serbia and North Macedon ...
, which are believed to be more than 1500 years old, possibly making them the oldest oaks in Europe; another specimen, called the '
Kongeegen
Kongeegen (the King Oak) is a renowned oak tree in Denmark. It grows in ''Jægerspris Nordskov'' (Jægerspris North Forest) near Jægerspris, on the island of Sjælland. A scientific investigation in 1965 of the tree's rings indicated that the tr ...
' ('Kings Oak'), estimated to be about 1,200 years old, grows in
Jaegerspris,
Denmark
)
, song = ( en, "King Christian stood by the lofty mast")
, song_type = National and royal anthem
, image_map = EU-Denmark.svg
, map_caption =
, subdivision_type = Sovereign state
, subdivision_name = Danish Realm, Kingdom of Denmark
...
. Yet another can be found in
Kvilleken,
Sweden
Sweden, formally the Kingdom of Sweden,The United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names states that the country's formal name is the Kingdom of SwedenUNGEGN World Geographical Names, Sweden./ref> is a Nordic country located on ...
, that is over 1000 years old and around. Of maiden (not pollarded) specimens, one of the oldest is the great oak of
Ivenack
Ivenack is a municipality in the Mecklenburgische Seenplatte district, in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany. It is famous for its baroque ensemble (featuring a castle, church, orangery, outbuildings) and its natural heritage (oak
An oak is a tr ...
,
Germany
Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwe ...
.
Tree-ring research of this tree and other oaks nearby gives an estimated age of 700 to 800 years. Also the
Bowthorpe Oak
Bowthorpe Oak in Manthorpe near Bourne, Lincolnshire, England is perhaps England's oldest oak tree with an estimated age of over 1,000 years. The tree has a circumference of about and has a hollow trunk.
The tree can be found on Bowthorpe Pa ...
in
Lincolnshire
Lincolnshire (abbreviated Lincs.) is a county in the East Midlands of England, with a long coastline on the North Sea to the east. It borders Norfolk to the south-east, Cambridgeshire to the south, Rutland to the south-west, Leicestershire ...
,
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Wales to its west and Scotland to its north. The Irish Sea lies northwest and the Celtic Sea to the southwest. It is separated from continental Europe b ...
is estimated to be 1,000 years old, making it the oldest in the UK, although there is
Knightwood Oak
The Knightwood Oak is a pedunculate oak and the largest, and perhaps most famous, oak tree in the New Forest, in southern England. It is also known as the ''Queen of the Forest''. It is over 500 years old and has a girth of . The tree is still ...
in the
New Forest
The New Forest is one of the largest remaining tracts of unenclosed pasture land, heathland and forest in Southern England, covering southwest Hampshire and southeast Wiltshire. It was proclaimed a royal forest by William the Conqueror, featu ...
that is also said to be as old. The highest density of ''Q. robur'' with a circumference of and more is in Latvia.
Chemistry
Grandinin
Grandinin is an ellagitannin. It can be found in ''Melaleuca quinquenervia'' leavesPolyphenols of Melaleuca quinquenervia leaves - pharmacological studies of grandinin. Moharram F. A., Marzouk M. S., El-Toumy S. A. A., Ahmed A. A. E. and Aboutabl ...
/
roburin E,
castalagin
Castalagin is an ellagitannin, a type of hydrolyzable tannin, found in oak and chestnut wood and in the stem barks of ''Anogeissus leiocarpus'' and ''Terminalia avicennoides''.
Castalagin is the diastereomer of vescalagin in C-1 of the glycosidic ...
/
vescalagin
Castalagin is an ellagitannin, a type of hydrolyzable tannin, found in oak and chestnut wood and in the stem barks of ''Anogeissus leiocarpus'' and ''Terminalia avicennoides''.
Castalagin is the diastereomer of vescalagin in C-1 of the glycosidic ...
,
gallic acid
Gallic acid (also known as 3,4,5-trihydroxybenzoic acid) is a trihydroxybenzoic acid with the formula C6 H2( OH)3CO2H. It is classified as a phenolic acid. It is found in gallnuts, sumac, witch hazel, tea leaves, oak bark, and other plants. It i ...
, monogalloyl glucose (
glucogallin
Glucogallin is chemical compound formed from gallic acid and β-D-glucose. It can be found in oaks species like the North American white oak (''Quercus alba''), European red oak (''Quercus robur'') and Amla fruit (''Phyllanthus emblica'').
It is ...
) and
valoneic acid dilactone
Valoneic acid dilactone is a hydrolysable tannin that can be isolated from the heartwood of ''Shorea laevifolia''5A-Reductase inhibitory tannin-related compounds isolated from Shorea laevifolia. Yoshio Hirano, Ryuichiro Kondo and Kokki Sakai, Jour ...
, monogalloyl glucose,
digalloyl glucose Digalloyl glucose may refer to:
* 1,6-Digalloyl glucose, a gallotannin found in oak species
* 2,6-digalloyl glucose and 3,6-digalloyl glucose, gallotannins found in galls of ''Tamarix aphylla
''Tamarix aphylla'' is the largest known species o ...
,
trigalloyl glucose,
rhamnose
Rhamnose (Rha, Rham) is a naturally occurring deoxy sugar. It can be classified as either a methyl-pentose or a 6-deoxy-hexose. Rhamnose predominantly occurs in nature in its L-form as L-rhamnose (6-deoxy-L-mannose). This is unusual, since most o ...
,
quercitrin
Quercitrin is a glycoside formed from the flavonoid quercetin and the deoxy sugar rhamnose.
Austrian chemist Heinrich Hlasiwetz (1825-1875) is remembered for his chemical analysis of quercitrin.
Occurrence
Quercitrin is a constituent of the d ...
and
ellagic acid
Ellagic acid is a polyphenol found in numerous fruits and vegetables. It is the dilactone of hexahydroxydiphenic acid.
Name
The name comes from the French term ''acide ellagique'', from the word ''galle'' spelled backwards because it can be ob ...
are phenolic compounds found in ''Q. robur''. The heartwood contains
triterpene saponin
Saponins (Latin "sapon", soap + "-in", one of), also selectively referred to as triterpene glycosides, are bitter-tasting usually toxic plant-derived organic chemicals that have a foamy quality when agitated in water. They are widely distributed ...
s.
Taxonomy
''Quercus robur'' (
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
''quercus'', "oak" + ''robur'' "hardwood, oak wood, oak") is the type species of the genus (the species by which the oak genus ''Quercus'' is defined), and a member of the
white oak
The genus ''Quercus'' contains about 500 species, some of which are listed here. The genus, as is the case with many large genera, is divided into subgenera and sections. Traditionally, the genus ''Quercus'' was divided into the two subgenera '' ...
section (''Quercus'' section ''Quercus''). The populations in Italy, southeast Europe, and Asia Minor and the Caucasus are sometimes treated as separate species, ''Q. brutia'' Tenore, ''Q. pedunculiflora'' K. Koch and ''Q. haas'' Kotschy respectively.
A close relative is the
sessile oak
''Quercus petraea'', commonly known as the sessile oak, Cornish oak, Irish Oak or durmast oak, is a species of oak tree native to most of Europe and into Anatolia and Iran. The sessile oak is the national tree of Ireland, and an unofficial embl ...
(''
Q. petraea''), which shares much of its range. ''Q. robur'' is distinguished from ''Q. petraea'' by its leaves having only a very short stalk (
petiole) long, and by its pedunculate (stalked) acorns. The two often
hybridise in the wild, the hybrid being known as ''
Quercus × rosacea
''Quercus'' × ''rosacea'' (or ''Quercus rosacea''), is a naturally occurring hybrid species of oak native to Europe. They are the offspring of sessile oak, ''Quercus petraea'', and common oak, ''Quercus robur'', found where their ranges overlap. ...
''.
''Quercus robur'' should not be confused with ''Q. rubra'', the
northern red oak
''Quercus rubra'', the northern red oak, is an oak tree in the red oak group (''Quercus'' section ''Lobatae''). It is a native of North America, in the eastern and central United States and southeast and south-central Canada. It has been introdu ...
, which is in the same subgenus as ''Q. robur'' but is included in a different section.
Ecology
![Q-robur-concordia](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Q-robur-concordia.jpg)
''Quercus robur'' is very tolerant to soil conditions and the
continental climate
Continental climates often have a significant annual variation in temperature (warm summers and cold winters). They tend to occur in the middle latitudes (40 to 55 north), within large landmasses where prevailing winds blow overland bringing som ...
but it prefers fertile and well-watered soils. Mature trees tolerate flooding.
Within its native range, ''Q. robur'' is valued for its importance to
insect
Insects (from Latin ') are pancrustacean hexapod invertebrates of the class Insecta. They are the largest group within the arthropod phylum. Insects have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body ( head, thorax and abdomen), three pairs ...
s and other wildlife. Numerous insects live on the leaves, buds, and in the acorns. ''Q. robur'' supports the highest biodiversity of insect herbivores of any British plant (>400 spp) and the quantity of
caterpillar
Caterpillars ( ) are the larval stage of members of the order Lepidoptera (the insect order comprising butterflies and moths).
As with most common names, the application of the word is arbitrary, since the larvae of sawflies (suborder Sym ...
species increases with their age.
Blue
Blue is one of the three primary colours in the RYB colour model (traditional colour theory), as well as in the RGB (additive) colour model. It lies between violet and cyan on the spectrum of visible light. The eye perceives blue when obs ...
and
great tit
The great tit (''Parus major'') is a passerine bird in the tit family Paridae. It is a widespread and common species throughout Europe, the Middle East, Central Asia and east across the Palearctic to the Amur River, south to parts of North Af ...
s time their egg hatching to the leaves opening.
The acorns form a valuable food resource for several small
mammal
Mammals () are a group of vertebrate animals constituting the class Mammalia (), characterized by the presence of mammary glands which in females produce milk for feeding (nursing) their young, a neocortex (a region of the brain), fur or ...
s and some birds, notably
Eurasian jay
The Eurasian jay (''Garrulus glandarius'') is a species of passerine bird in the crow family Corvidae. It has pinkish brown plumage with a black stripe on each side of a whitish throat, a bright blue panel on the upper wing and a black tail. The ...
s ''Garrulus glandarius''. Jays were overwhelmingly the primary propagators of oaks before humans began planting them commercially (and still remain the principal propagators for wild oaks), because of their habit of taking acorns from the umbra of its parent tree and burying them undamaged elsewhere. Mammals, notably
squirrel
Squirrels are members of the family Sciuridae, a family that includes small or medium-size rodents. The squirrel family includes tree squirrels, ground squirrels (including chipmunks and prairie dogs, among others), and flying squirrels. Squ ...
s who tend to hoard acorns and other nuts, usually leave them too abused to grow in the action of moving or storing them.
Cultivation
A number of
cultivar
A cultivar is a type of cultivated plant that people have selected for desired traits and when propagated retain those traits. Methods used to propagate cultivars include: division, root and stem cuttings, offsets, grafting, tissue culture, ...
s are grown in
garden
A garden is a planned space, usually outdoors, set aside for the cultivation, display, and enjoyment of plants and other forms of nature. The single feature identifying even the wildest wild garden is ''control''. The garden can incorporate both ...
s and
park
A park is an area of natural, semi-natural or planted space set aside for human enjoyment and recreation or for the protection of wildlife or natural habitats. Urban parks are urban green space, green spaces set aside for recreation inside t ...
s and in
arboreta
An arboretum (plural: arboreta) in a general sense is a botanical collection composed exclusively of trees of a variety of species. Originally mostly created as a section in a larger garden or park for specimens of mostly non-local species, man ...
and botanical gardens. The most common cultivar is ''Quercus robur'' 'Fastigiata', and is the exception among ''Q. robur'' cultivars that are generally smaller than the standard tree, growing to between and exhibit unusual leaf or crown shape characteristics.
; In Australia
English oak is one of the most common park trees in south-eastern Australia, noted for its vigorous, luxuriant growth. In
Australia
Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a Sovereign state, sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous List of islands of Australia, sma ...
, it grows very quickly to a tree of tall by up to broad, with a low-branching canopy. Its trunk and secondary branches are very thick and solid and covered with deep-fissured blackish-grey bark.
The largest example in Australia is in
Donnybrook,
Western Australia
Western Australia (commonly abbreviated as WA) is a state of Australia occupying the western percent of the land area of Australia excluding external territories. It is bounded by the Indian Ocean to the north and west, the Southern Ocean to th ...
.
Cultivars
* ''Quercus robur'' 'Fastigiata' ("cypress oak"), probably the most common cultivated form , it grows to a large imposing tree with a narrow columnar habit. The fastigiate oak was originally propagated from an upright tree that was found in central Europe.
* ''Quercus robur'' 'Concordia' ("golden oak"), a small very slow-growing tree, eventually reaching , with bright golden-yellow leaves throughout spring and summer. It was originally raised in Van Geert's nursery at
Ghent
Ghent ( nl, Gent ; french: Gand ; traditional English: Gaunt) is a city and a municipality in the Flemish Region of Belgium. It is the capital and largest city of the East Flanders province, and the third largest in the country, exceeded in ...
in 1843.
* ''Quercus robur'' 'Pendula' ("weeping oak"), a small to medium-sized tree with pendulous branches, reaching up to 15 m.
* ''Quercus robur'' 'Purpurea' is another cultivar growing to 10 m, but with purple-coloured leaves.
* ''Quercus robur'' 'Filicifolia' ("cut-leaved oak") is a cultivar where the leaf is pinnately divided into fine forward pointing segments.
Hybrids
Along with the naturally occurring ''Q. × rosacea'', several
hybrids with other white oak species have also been produced in cultivation, including Turner's Oak ''Q. × turneri'', Heritage Oak ''Q. × macdanielli'', and Two Worlds Oak ''Q. × bimundorum'', the latter two developed by nurseries in the
United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...
.
* ''
Q. × bimundorum'' (
''Q. alba'' × ''Q. robur'') (two worlds oak)
* ''
Q. × macdanielli'' (
''Q. macrocarpa'' × ''Q. robur'') (heritage oak)
* ''
Q. × rosacea''
Bechst. (
''Q. petraea'' x ''Q. robur''), a hybrid of the sessile oak and English oak. It is usually of intermediate character between its parents, however it does occasionally exhibit more pronounced characteristics of one or the other parent.
* ''
Q. × turneri''
Willd.
Carl Ludwig Willdenow (22 August 1765 – 10 July 1812) was a German botanist, pharmacist, and plant taxonomist. He is considered one of the founders of phytogeography, the study of the geographic distribution of plants. Willdenow was also ...
(
''Q. ilex'' × ''Q. robur'') (Turner's oak), a semi-evergreen tree of small to medium size with a rounded crown; it was originally raised at the Holloway Down Nursery of Spencer Turner,
Leyton, Essex
Leyton () is a town in east London, England, within the London Borough of Waltham Forest. It borders Walthamstow to the north, Leytonstone to the east, and Stratford to the south, with Clapton, Hackney Wick and Homerton, across the River Lea ...
, UK, noted by the zoologist
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
Jean-Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet, chevalier de Lamarck (1 August 1744 – 18 December 1829), often known simply as Lamarck (; ), was a French naturalist, biologist, academic, and soldier. He was an early proponent of the idea that biologi ...
at Trianon,
Versailles
The Palace of Versailles ( ; french: Château de Versailles ) is a former royal residence built by King Louis XIV located in Versailles, about west of Paris, France. The palace is owned by the French Republic and since 1995 has been managed, u ...
in 1783, as the ''chêne de turnère''. (Turner had died in January 1776, and the nursery grounds, on extended lease, returned to the landowner.) An early specimen was planted at the
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew is a non-departmental public body in the United Kingdom sponsored by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs. An internationally important botanical research and education institution, it employs 1,100 ...
in 1798; it was uprooted in the
Great Storm of 1987 but resettled in the ground and then increased its healthy growth.
*
''Q. × warei'' (''Q. robur fastigiata'' x ''
Q. bicolor''), a hybrid between upright English oak and the swamp white oak. The selections within this hybrid include 'Long' () and 'Nadler' ().
Diseases
*
Acute oak decline
Acute oak decline is a disease that infects oak trees in the UK. It mainly affects mature oak trees of over 50 years old of both Britain's native oak species: the pedunculate oak (''Quercus robur'') and the sessile oak (''Quercus petraea''). The d ...
*
Powdery mildew
Powdery mildew is a fungal disease that affects a wide range of plants. Powdery mildew diseases are caused by many different species of ascomycete fungi in the order Erysiphales. Powdery mildew is one of the easier plant diseases to identify, as ...
caused by ''
Erysiphe alphitoides
''Erysiphe alphitoides'' is a species of fungus which causes powdery mildew on oak trees.
Discovery and taxonomy
Today oak powdery mildew is one of the most common diseases in European forests but it is thought to not always have been present ...
''
*
Sudden oak death
James Green aka "Sudden" is a fictional character created by an English author Oliver Strange in the early 1930s as the hero of a series, originally published by George Newnes Books Ltd, set in the American Wild West era. Oliver Strange died i ...
Commercial forestry
''Quercus robur'' is planted for
forestry
Forestry is the science and craft of creating, managing, planting, using, conserving and repairing forests, woodlands, and associated resources for human and environmental benefits. Forestry is practiced in plantations and natural stands. Th ...
, and produces a long-lasting and durable
heartwood
Wood is a porous and fibrous structural tissue found in the stems and roots of trees and other woody plants. It is an organic materiala natural composite of cellulose fibers that are strong in tension and embedded in a matrix of lignin tha ...
, much in demand for interior and furniture work. The wood of ''Q. robur'' is identified by a close examination of a
cross-section
Cross section may refer to:
* Cross section (geometry)
** Cross-sectional views in architecture & engineering 3D
*Cross section (geology)
* Cross section (electronics)
* Radar cross section, measure of detectability
* Cross section (physics)
**Ab ...
perpendicular to fibres. The wood is characterised by its distinct (often wide) dark and light brown growth rings. The earlywood displays a vast number of large vessels (around in diameter). There are rays of thin (about ) yellow or light brown lines running across the growth rings. The timber is around per cubic meter in density.
Culture
Basque Country
In the
Basque Country (Spain and France) the oak symbolises the traditional
Basque liberties. This is based on the '
tree of Gernika', an ancient oak tree located in
Gernika
Guernica (, ), official name (reflecting the Basque language) Gernika (), is a town in the province of Biscay, in the Autonomous Community of the Basque Country, Spain. The town of Guernica is one part (along with neighbouring Lumo) of the mu ...
, below which since at least the 13th century the
Lords of Biscay
The Lordship of Biscay ( es, Señorío de Vizcaya, Basque: ''Bizkaiko jaurerria'') was a region under feudal rule in the region of Biscay in the Iberian Peninsula between 1040 and 1876, ruled by a political figure known as the Lord of Biscay. One ...
first, and afterwards their successors the
Kings of Castile
This is a list of kings and queens of the Kingdom and Crown of Castile. For their predecessors, see List of Castilian counts.
Kings and Queens of Castile
Jiménez dynasty
House of Ivrea
The following dynasts are descendants, in the ma ...
and the
Kings of Spain
This is a list of Spanish monarchs, that is, rulers of the country of Spain. The forerunners of the monarchs of the Spanish throne were the following:
*Kings of the Visigoths
* Kings of Asturias
* Kings of Navarre
*Kings of León
*Kings of Gal ...
solemnly swore to uphold the
charter of Biscay, which secured widespread rights to the inhabitants of
Biscay
Biscay (; eu, Bizkaia ; es, Vizcaya ) is a province of Spain and a historical territory of the Basque Country, heir of the ancient Lordship of Biscay, lying on the south shore of the eponymous bay. The capital and largest city is Bilbao.
B ...
. Since the 14th century, the
Juntas Generales
The Juntas Generales (General Councils, Batzar Nagusiak in Basque language, Basque) are representative assembly, representative assemblies in the Southern Basque Country that go back to the 14th century.Larry Trask, Trask, L. ''The History of Basqu ...
(the parliament of Biscay) gathers in a building next to the oak tree, and symbolically passes its laws under the tree as well. Nowadays, the
Lehendakari
The President of the Basque Government ( eu, Eusko Jaurlaritzako lehendakaria, es, presidente del Gobierno Vasco), usually known in the Basque language as the Lehendakari ( eu, lehendakari, es, lendakari), is the head of government of the Basq ...
(Basque prime minister) swears his oath of office under the tree.
Bulgaria
The national
coat of arms of Bulgaria
coat of arms of Bulgaria ( bg, Герб на България ) consists of a crowned golden Lion (heraldry), lion rampant over a dark red Escutcheon (heraldry), shield; above the shield is the Bulgarian historical Crown (headgear), crown. The sh ...
includes two crossed oak branches with fruits – as shield (
escutcheon
Escutcheon may refer to:
* Escutcheon (heraldry), a shield or shield-shaped emblem, displaying a coat of arms
* Escutcheon (furniture), a metal plate that surrounds a keyhole or lock cylinder on a door
* (in medicine) the distribution of pubic ha ...
)
compartment
Compartment may refer to:
Biology
* Compartment (anatomy), a space of connective tissue between muscles
* Compartment (chemistry), in which different parts of the same protein serves different functions
* Compartment (development), fields of cells ...
.
Croatia
Oak leaves with acorns are depicted on the
reverse
Reverse or reversing may refer to:
Arts and media
* ''Reverse'' (Eldritch album), 2001
* ''Reverse'' (2009 film), a Polish comedy-drama film
* ''Reverse'' (2019 film), an Iranian crime-drama film
* ''Reverse'' (Morandi album), 2005
* ''Reverse'' ...
of the Croatian 5
lipa
Lipa or LIPA (Cyrillic: Липа) may refer to:
Acronym
*Liquid Isopropyl alcohol
*League for Independent Political Action, a former American progressive political organization
*Liverpool Institute for Performing Arts, a performing arts school in ...
coin, minted since 1993. The pedunculate oak of the Croatian region of
Slavonia
Slavonia (; hr, Slavonija) is, with Dalmatia, Croatia proper, and Istria, one of the four historical regions of Croatia. Taking up the east of the country, it roughly corresponds with five Croatian counties: Brod-Posavina, Osijek-Baranja ...
(considered a separate subspecies – ''Slavonian oak'') is a regional symbol of Slavonia and a national symbol of
Croatia
, image_flag = Flag of Croatia.svg
, image_coat = Coat of arms of Croatia.svg
, anthem = "Lijepa naša domovino"("Our Beautiful Homeland")
, image_map =
, map_caption =
, capit ...
.
Finland
In traditional
Finnish
Finnish may refer to:
* Something or someone from, or related to Finland
* Culture of Finland
* Finnish people or Finns, the primary ethnic group in Finland
* Finnish language, the national language of the Finnish people
* Finnish cuisine
See also ...
culture, the oak is considered a holy tree.
In
Finnic mythology, the
World tree
The world tree is a motif present in several religions and mythologies, particularly Indo-European religions, Siberian religions, and Native American religions. The world tree is represented as a colossal tree which supports the heavens, thereb ...
, which supported the sky, was a great oak, which grew to block the movement of the sky, sunlight and moonlight, and had to be felled, releasing its magic, creating the
Milky Way
The Milky Way is the galaxy that includes our Solar System, with the name describing the galaxy's appearance from Earth: a hazy band of light seen in the night sky formed from stars that cannot be individually distinguished by the naked eye ...
, which guides dead souls to the afterworld.
The oak was also considered to have many magical properties, and it was used in traditional Finnish folk medicine as well.[
In 1746, all oak trees were legally classified as royal property (at the time Finland was a part of Sweden), and oaks had enjoyed legal protection already from the 17th century.]
The oak is also the regional tree of the Southwest Finland
Southwest Finland, calqued as Finland Proper ( fi, Varsinais-Suomi ; sv, Egentliga Finland), is a region in the southwest of Finland. It borders the regions of Satakunta, Pirkanmaa, Tavastia Proper (Kanta-Häme), Uusimaa, and Åland. The regi ...
region, where it is a common yard tree.
France
The oak tree has had a symbolic value since Ancient times. Some oaks were considered sacred trees by the Gauls
The Gauls ( la, Galli; grc, Γαλάται, ''Galátai'') were a group of Celtic peoples of mainland Europe in the Iron Age and the Roman period (roughly 5th century BC to 5th century AD). Their homeland was known as Gaul (''Gallia''). They s ...
. The druids would cut down the mistletoe growing on them. Even after Christianization
Christianization ( or Christianisation) is to make Christian; to imbue with Christian principles; to become Christian. It can apply to the conversion of an individual, a practice, a place or a whole society. It began in the Roman Empire, conti ...
, oak trees were considered to protect as lightning would strike them rather than on nearby inhabitation. Such struck trees would often be turned into places of worship, like the Chêne chapelle
The Chêne chapelle (lit. "chapel oak") is an oak tree located in Allouville-Bellefosse in Seine-Maritime, Normandy, France.
Description
The oak tree is between 800 and 1,200 . King Saint Louis has been represented rendering justice under an oak tree. During the French Revolution
The French Revolution ( ) was a period of radical political and societal change in France that began with the Estates General of 1789 and ended with the formation of the French Consulate in November 1799. Many of its ideas are considere ...
, oaks were often planted as trees of freedom ( fr). One of such trees, an oak planted during the 1848 Revolution
The Revolutions of 1848, known in some countries as the Springtime of the Peoples or the Springtime of Nations, were a series of political upheavals throughout Europe starting in 1848. It remains the most widespread revolutionary wave in Europea ...
, survived the destruction of Oradour-sur-Glane
Oradour-sur-Glane (; oc, Orador de Glana) was a commune in the Haute-Vienne department, New Aquitaine, west central France, as well as the name of the main village within the commune.
History
The original village was destroyed on 10 June 1944 ...
by the Nazis
Nazism ( ; german: Nazismus), the common name in English for National Socialism (german: Nationalsozialismus, ), is the far-right totalitarian political ideology and practices associated with Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party (NSDAP) in Na ...
. The branch of oak is part of the National emblem of France
The current Constitution of France does not specify a national emblem. The unofficial coat of arms of France depicts a lictor's fasces upon branches of laurel and oak, as well as a ribbon bearing the national motto of ''Liberté, égalité, frate ...
. After the announcement of General Charles de Gaulle
Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle (; ; (commonly abbreviated as CDG) 22 November 18909 November 1970) was a French army officer and statesman who led Free France against Nazi Germany in World War II and chaired the Provisional Government ...
's death, caricaturist represented him as a fallen oak.
Germany
In Germany, the oak tree (regional known as "German Oak") is used as a typical object and symbol in romanticism. It can be found in several paintings of Caspar David Friedrich
Caspar David Friedrich (5 September 1774 – 7 May 1840) was a 19th-century German Romantic landscape painter, generally considered the most important German artist of his generation. He is best known for his mid-period allegorical landscape ...
and in "Of the life of a Good-For-Nothing" written by Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff
Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff (10 March 178826 November 1857) was a German poet, novelist, playwright, literary critic, translator, and anthologist. Eichendorff was one of the major writers and critics of Romanticism.Cf. J. A. Cuddon: '' ...
as a symbol of the state protecting every citizen. In those works the oak is shown in different situations, with leaves and flowers or dead without any of its previous beauty. Those conditions are mostly symbols for the conditions Germany is in or going through. Furthermore, the oak's stem is a symbol for Germany's strength and stability. Oak branches were displayed on the reverse of coins of the old Deutsche Mark
The Deutsche Mark (; English: ''German mark''), abbreviated "DM" or "D-Mark" (), was the official currency of West Germany from 1948 until 1990 and later the unified Germany from 1990 until the adoption of the euro in 2002. In English, it was ...
currency (1 through 10 Pfennigs; the 50 Pfennigs coin showed a woman planting an oak seedling), and are now also displayed on the reverse of German-issue Euro
The euro ( symbol: €; code: EUR) is the official currency of 19 out of the member states of the European Union (EU). This group of states is known as the eurozone or, officially, the euro area, and includes about 340 million citizens . ...
currency coins (1 through 5 cents).
Ireland
In Ireland, at Birr Castle
Birr Castle (Irish: ''Caisleán Bhiorra'') is a large castle in the town of Birr in County Offaly, Ireland. It is the home of the 7th Earl of Rosse and his family, and as such the residential areas of the castle are not open to the public ...
, a specimen over 400 years old has a girth of . It is known as the Carroll Oak, referring to the local Chieftains, Ely O'Carroll Ely or ELY may refer to:
Places Ireland
* Éile, a medieval kingdom commonly anglicised Ely
* Ely Place, Dublin, a street
United Kingdom
* Ely, Cambridgeshire, a cathedral city in Cambridgeshire, England
** Ely Cathedral
** Ely Rural District, a f ...
who ruled prior to Norman occupation.
Latvia
In Latvia
Latvia ( or ; lv, Latvija ; ltg, Latveja; liv, Leţmō), officially the Republic of Latvia ( lv, Latvijas Republika, links=no, ltg, Latvejas Republika, links=no, liv, Leţmō Vabāmō, links=no), is a country in the Baltic region of ...
oak is the national symbol. Many Latvian folk songs are about oak tree. Base of the coat of arms is decorated with the branches of an oak tree.
Romania
The Romanian
Romanian may refer to:
*anything of, from, or related to the country and nation of Romania
**Romanians, an ethnic group
**Romanian language, a Romance language
***Romanian dialects, variants of the Romanian language
**Romanian cuisine, traditional ...
Rugby Union
Rugby union, commonly known simply as rugby, is a close-contact team sport that originated at Rugby School in the first half of the 19th century. One of the two codes of rugby football, it is based on running with the ball in hand. In its m ...
side is known as ''The Oaks.''
Scandinavia
In the Scandinavia
Scandinavia; Sámi languages: /. ( ) is a subregion#Europe, subregion in Northern Europe, with strong historical, cultural, and linguistic ties between its constituent peoples. In English usage, ''Scandinavia'' most commonly refers to Denmark, ...
n countries, oaks were considered the "thunderstorm
A thunderstorm, also known as an electrical storm or a lightning storm, is a storm characterized by the presence of lightning and its acoustic effect on the Earth's atmosphere, known as thunder. Relatively weak thunderstorms are someti ...
trees", which representing Thor
Thor (; from non, Þórr ) is a prominent god in Germanic paganism. In Norse mythology, he is a hammer-wielding æsir, god associated with lightning, thunder, storms, sacred trees and groves in Germanic paganism and mythology, sacred groves ...
, the god of thunder.
Serbia
In Serbia the oak is a national symbol, having been part of the historical coat of arms
A coat of arms is a heraldry, heraldic communication design, visual design on an escutcheon (heraldry), escutcheon (i.e., shield), surcoat, or tabard (the latter two being outer garments). The coat of arms on an escutcheon forms the central ele ...
of the Socialist Republic of Serbia
, life_span = 1944–1992
, status = Constituent state of Yugoslavia
, p1 = Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia
, flag_p1 = Flag of German Reich (1935–1945).svg
, p2 ...
, the historical coat of arms and flags
A flag is a piece of fabric (most often rectangular or quadrilateral) with a distinctive design and colours. It is used as a symbol, a signalling device, or for decoration. The term ''flag'' is also used to refer to the graphic design employ ...
of the Principality of Serbia
The Principality of Serbia ( sr-Cyrl, Књажество Србија, Knjažestvo Srbija) was an autonomous state in the Balkans that came into existence as a result of the Serbian Revolution, which lasted between 1804 and 1817. Its creation was ...
, as well as the current traditional coat of arms
A coat of arms is a heraldry, heraldic communication design, visual design on an escutcheon (heraldry), escutcheon (i.e., shield), surcoat, or tabard (the latter two being outer garments). The coat of arms on an escutcheon forms the central ele ...
and flag
A flag is a piece of fabric (most often rectangular or quadrilateral) with a distinctive design and colours. It is used as a symbol, a signalling device, or for decoration. The term ''flag'' is also used to refer to the graphic design empl ...
of Vojvodina
Vojvodina ( sr-Cyrl, Војводина}), officially the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina, is an autonomous province that occupies the northernmost part of Serbia. It lies within the Pannonian Basin, bordered to the south by the national capital ...
. On the coat of arms, the oak branch at one side symbolized strength and longevity, while the olive branch at the other symbolized peace and fertility. On the socialist coat of arms, the golden oak branch was present next to a golden wreath of wheat. At troublesome times, when there were no churches, people prayed under oak trees where they would carve a cross, ''zapis
A ''zapis'' ( sr-Cyrl, запис, , literally "inscription"; plural: ''zapisi'' (записи)) is a sacred tree in Serbian tradition, protecting the village within whose bounds it is situated. A cross is inscribed into the bark of each ''zapis''. ...
''; some of these oaks are over 600 years old and are considered sacred. The oak is used in the Serbian Christmas tradition
Serbian Christmas traditions are customs and practices of the Serbs associated with Christmas and a period encompassing it, between the third Sunday before Christmas Day and Epiphany. There are many, complex traditions connected with this period. T ...
of ''Badnjak
Badnjak may refer to:
*Badnjak (Serbian), a Christmas tradition in Serbia
*Badnjak (Croatian)
Badnjak (), refers to a log brought into the house and placed on the fire on the evening of Christmas Eve, a central tradition in Croatian Christmas cele ...
''.
United Kingdom
In England, the English oak has assumed the status of a national emblem. This has its origins in the oak tree at Boscobel House
Boscobel House () is a Grade II* listed building in the parish of Boscobel in Shropshire. It has been, at various times, a farmhouse, a hunting lodge, and a holiday home; but it is most famous for its role in the escape of Charles II after the B ...
, where the future King Charles II hid from his Parliamentarian pursuers in 1650 during the English Civil War
The English Civil War (1642–1651) was a series of civil wars and political machinations between Parliamentarians (" Roundheads") and Royalists led by Charles I ("Cavaliers"), mainly over the manner of England's governance and issues of re ...
; the tree has since been known as the Royal Oak
The Royal Oak is the English oak tree within which the future King Charles II of England hid to escape the Roundheads following the Battle of Worcester in 1651. The tree was in Boscobel Wood, which was part of the park of Boscobel House. C ...
. This event was celebrated nationally on 29 May as Oak Apple Day
Restoration Day, more commonly known as Oak Apple Day or Royal Oak Day, was an English, Welsh and Irish public holiday, observed annually on 29 May, to commemorate the restoration of the Stuart monarchy in May 1660. In some parts of England the ...
, which is continued to this day in some communities. 'The Royal Oak' is the third most popular pub name
Pub names are used to identify and differentiate traditional drinking establishments. Many pubs are centuries old, and were named at a time when most of their customers were illiterate, but could recognise pub signs. The use of signage was not c ...
in Britain (with 541 counted in 2007) and has been the name of eight major Royal Navy
The Royal Navy (RN) is the United Kingdom's naval warfare force. Although warships were used by English and Scottish kings from the early medieval period, the first major maritime engagements were fought in the Hundred Years' War against F ...
warships
A warship or combatant ship is a naval ship that is built and primarily intended for naval warfare. Usually they belong to the armed forces of a state. As well as being armed, warships are designed to withstand damage and are usually faster and ...
. The naval associations are strengthened by the fact that oak was the main construction material for sailing warships. The Royal Navy was often described as 'The Wooden Walls of Old England' (a paraphrase of the Delphic Oracle
Pythia (; grc, Πυθία ) was the name of the high priestess of the Temple of Apollo at Delphi. She specifically served as its oracle and was known as the Oracle of Delphi. Her title was also historically glossed in English as the Pythoness ...
) and the Navy’s official quick march is "Heart of Oak
"Heart of Oak" is the official march of the Royal Navy. It is also the official march of several Commonwealth navies, including the Royal Canadian Navy and the Royal New Zealand Navy. It was also the official march of the Royal Australian Navy ...
". In folklore, the Major Oak
The Major Oak is a large English oak (''Quercus robur'') near the village of Edwinstowe in the midst of Sherwood Forest, Nottinghamshire, England. According to local folklore, it was Robin Hood's shelter where he and his merry men slept. It wei ...
is where Robin Hood
Robin Hood is a legendary heroic outlaw originally depicted in English folklore and subsequently featured in literature and film. According to legend, he was a highly skilled archer and swordsman. In some versions of the legend, he is depic ...
is purportedly to have taken shelter. Furthermore, the oak is the most common woodland tree in England. An oak tree has been depicted on the reverse of the pound coin
The British one pound (£1) coin is a denomination of sterling coinage. Its obverse bears the Latin engraving ELIZABETH II D G REG () F D () meaning, 'Elizabeth II, by the grace of God, Queen, Defender of the Faith'. Proclamation of 28 May 1 ...
(the 1987 and 1992 issues) and a sprig of oak leaves and acorns is the emblem of the National Trust
The National Trust, formally the National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty, is a charity and membership organisation for heritage conservation in England, Wales and Northern Ireland. In Scotland, there is a separate and ...
.
Genetics
The genome of ''Q. robur'' has been completely sequenced (GenOak project); a first version was published in 2016. It comprises 12 chromosomes pairs, about genes and 750 million bp.Oak genome sequencing
/ref> This is roughly a quarter of the size of the human genome, which has about 3 billion base pairs.
See also
* Gernika Oak
* Knopper gall
''Andricus quercuscalicis'' is a gall wasp species inducing knopper galls.
Knopper galls develop as a chemically induced distortion of growing acorns on pedunculate oak (''Quercus robur'' L.) trees, caused by gall wasps, which lay eggs in buds w ...
* Oak marble gall
''Andricus kollari'', also known as the marble gall wasp, is a parthenogenetic species of wasp which causes the formation of marble galls on oak trees. Synonyms for the species include ''Cynips kollari'', ''Andricus quercusgemmae'', ''A. minor'', ...
References
Flora Europaea: ''Quercus robur''
* Bean, W. J. (1976). ''Trees and shrubs hardy in the British Isles'' 8th ed., revised. John Murray.
* Rushforth, K. (1999). ''Trees of Britain and Europe''. HarperCollins .
*
External links
Oaks from Bialowieza Forest in Poland (biggest oak cluster with the monumental sizes in Europe)
Monumental Trees, Photos and location details of large English oak trees
Latvia - the land of oaks
Den virtuella floran - Distribution
''Quercus robur''
- information, genetic conservation units and related resources. European Forest Genetic Resources Programme
European Forest Genetic Resources Programme (EUFORGEN) is an international network that supports the conservation and sustainable use of forest genetic resources in Europe. The programme’s tasks include to coordinate and promote ''in situ
' ...
(EUFORGEN)
{{Authority control
robur
Trees of Asia
Trees of Europe
Trees of humid continental climate
Trees of mild maritime climate
Least concern plants
Least concern biota of Europe
Plants described in 1753
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
Garden plants of Europe
Ornamental trees