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Quenching refers to any process which decreases the
fluorescence Fluorescence is the emission of light by a substance that has absorbed light or other electromagnetic radiation. It is a form of luminescence. In most cases, the emitted light has a longer wavelength, and therefore a lower photon energy, ...
intensity of a given substance. A variety of processes can result in quenching, such as
excited state In quantum mechanics, an excited state of a system (such as an atom, molecule or nucleus) is any quantum state of the system that has a higher energy than the ground state (that is, more energy than the absolute minimum). Excitation refers t ...
reactions, energy transfer, complex-formation and collisional quenching. As a consequence, quenching is often heavily dependent on
pressure Pressure (symbol: ''p'' or ''P'') is the force applied perpendicular to the surface of an object per unit area over which that force is distributed. Gauge pressure (also spelled ''gage'' pressure)The preferred spelling varies by country a ...
and
temperature Temperature is a physical quantity that expresses quantitatively the perceptions of hotness and coldness. Temperature is measured with a thermometer. Thermometers are calibrated in various temperature scales that historically have relied on ...
. Molecular
oxygen Oxygen is the chemical element with the symbol O and atomic number 8. It is a member of the chalcogen group in the periodic table, a highly reactive nonmetal, and an oxidizing agent that readily forms oxides with most elements as we ...
, iodide ions and acrylamide are common chemical quenchers. The chloride ion is a well known quencher for quinine fluorescence. Quenching poses a problem for non-instant spectroscopic methods, such as
laser-induced fluorescence Laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) or laser-stimulated fluorescence (LSF) is a spectroscopic method in which an atom or molecule is excited to a higher energy level by the absorption of laser light followed by spontaneous emission of light. It was ...
. Quenching is made use of in optode sensors; for instance the quenching effect of oxygen on certain
ruthenium Ruthenium is a chemical element with the symbol Ru and atomic number 44. It is a rare transition metal belonging to the platinum group of the periodic table. Like the other metals of the platinum group, ruthenium is inert to most other chemic ...
complexes allows the measurement of oxygen saturation in solution. Quenching is the basis for
Förster resonance energy transfer Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET), fluorescence resonance energy transfer, resonance energy transfer (RET) or electronic energy transfer (EET) is a mechanism describing energy transfer between two light-sensitive molecules (chromophores). ...
(FRET) assays. Quenching and dequenching upon interaction with a specific molecular biological target is the basis for activatable optical contrast agents for molecular imaging. Many dyes undergo self-quenching, which can decrease the brightness of protein-dye conjugates for fluorescence microscopy, or can be harnessed in sensors of
proteolysis Proteolysis is the breakdown of proteins into smaller polypeptides or amino acids. Uncatalysed, the hydrolysis of peptide bonds is extremely slow, taking hundreds of years. Proteolysis is typically catalysed by cellular enzymes called protease ...
.


Mechanisms


Förster resonance energy transfer

There are a few distinct mechanisms by which energy can be transferred non-radiatively (without absorption or emission of photons) between two dyes, a donor and an acceptor.
Förster resonance energy transfer Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET), fluorescence resonance energy transfer, resonance energy transfer (RET) or electronic energy transfer (EET) is a mechanism describing energy transfer between two light-sensitive molecules (chromophores). ...
(FRET or FET) is a dynamic quenching mechanism because energy transfer occurs while the donor is in the excited state. FRET is based on classical dipole-dipole interactions between the transition dipoles of the donor and acceptor and is extremely dependent on the donor-acceptor distance, ''R'', falling off at a rate of 1/''R''6. FRET also depends on the donor-acceptor spectral overlap (see figure) and the relative orientation of the donor and acceptor transition dipole moments. FRET can typically occur over distances up to 100 Å.


Dexter electron transfer

Dexter (also known as Dexter exchange or collisional energy transfer, colloquially known as Dexter Energy Transfer) is another dynamic quenching mechanism. Dexter electron transfer is a short-range phenomenon that falls off exponentially with distance (proportional to e−''kR'' where k is a constant that depends on the inverse of the van der Waals radius of the atom) and depends on spatial overlap of donor and quencher molecular orbitals. In most donor-fluorophore–quencher-acceptor situations, the Förster mechanism is more important than the Dexter mechanism. With both Förster and Dexter energy transfer, the shapes of the absorption and fluorescence spectra of the dyes are unchanged. Dexter electron transfer can be significant between the dye and the solvent especially when hydrogen bonds are formed between them.


Exciplex

Exciplex (excited state complex) formation is a third dynamic quenching mechanism.


Static quenching

The remaining energy transfer mechanism is static quenching (also referred to as contact quenching). Static quenching can be a dominant mechanism for some reporter-quencher probes. Unlike dynamic quenching, static quenching occurs when the molecules form a complex in the ground state, i.e. before excitation occurs. The complex has its own unique properties, such as being nonfluorescent and having a unique absorption
spectrum A spectrum (plural ''spectra'' or ''spectrums'') is a condition that is not limited to a specific set of values but can vary, without gaps, across a continuum. The word was first used scientifically in optics to describe the rainbow of color ...
. Dye aggregation is often due to
hydrophobic In chemistry, hydrophobicity is the physical property of a molecule that is seemingly repelled from a mass of water (known as a hydrophobe). In contrast, hydrophiles are attracted to water. Hydrophobic molecules tend to be nonpolar and, ...
effects—the dye molecules stack together to minimize contact with water. Planar aromatic dyes that are matched for association through hydrophobic forces can enhance static quenching. High temperatures and addition of surfactants tend to disrupt ground state complex formation.


Collisional quenching

Collisional quenching occurs when the excited fluorophore experiences contact with an atom or molecule that can facilitate non-radiative transitions to the ground state. ... Excited-state molecule collides with quencher molecule and returns to ground state non-radiatively.


See also

* Dark quencher, for use in molecular biology. *
Förster resonance energy transfer Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET), fluorescence resonance energy transfer, resonance energy transfer (RET) or electronic energy transfer (EET) is a mechanism describing energy transfer between two light-sensitive molecules (chromophores). ...
, a phenomenon on which some quenching techniques rely


References

{{DEFAULTSORT:Quenching (Fluorescence) Fluorescence Reaction mechanisms